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57 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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The similarities and differences between the endocrine and nervous system |
The nervous system is fast acting by means of neural impulses; while endocrine is slow acting by means of hormones diffusing through blood. They both work together to help the body maintain homeostasis |
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What is the difference between paracrine and autocrine? |
autocrine are chemicals that effect the same cells that secrete them; while paracrine effects cells other than those that secrete them |
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The majority hormones are structurally classified as? what are the other structural classifications? |
They are classified as amino acids; the others are lipids (eicosanoids and steroids) |
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how the different structural classifications of hormones are able to interact with their target cells. |
(amino acid based) By using second chemical messengers after the hormone has bound to receptors on the target cell By direct gene activation involving steroid hormone. (steroid is lipid based that quickly pass through the phospholipid bilayer) |
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what are all the possible cellular responses upon hormone interaction? |
-alter plasma membrane permeability - stimulate protein synthesis - activate or deactivate enzyme systems - Induce secretory activity -stimulate cell mitosis |
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Explain the difference between up-regulation and down-regulation. (written) |
up regulation- target cells form more receptors in response to the hormone while downregulation loses receptors in response to the hormone. |
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difference between a "free" hormone and a protein bound hormone.
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free bound is protein based (meaning it has to be changed into a lipid-based to pass through lipid bilayer) while protein based is lipid based it passes through the phospholipid bilayer |
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What systems/checkpoints does the body have in order to terminate hormone interaction with target cells? |
can be removed from the blood by degrading enzymes, The kidneys (urine), liver enzyme systems (filtration and deactivation) |
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Know the difference between antagonistic, synergistic, and permissive hormones. |
permissiveness- one hormone cannot exert its effects without another hormone being present. Synergism- more the one hormone produces the same effects on a target cell. Antagonism- one or more hormones opposes the action of another hormone. (they both exert the opposite of one another and tries to pursue it) |
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How is the stimulation of hormones to be released from the cells that produced those hormones regulated in the vast majority of cases? |
humoral stimuli- secretion of hormones in direct response to changing blood levels of ions and nutrients. neural stimuli- nerve fibers stimulate hormone release hormonal stimuli- release of hormones in response to hormones produced by other endocrine organs. (pituitary gland release hormone to another organ and that hormone release a hormone) |
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The anatomy and function of pituitary gland |
the two-lobed organ that secretes nine major hormones. also called hypophysis, the ductless gland that secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream. the pituitary lies at the middle of the base of the skull, below the hypothalamus. |
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growth hormone |
growth hormone produced by somatotropic cells of the anterior lobe (aka somatotropin) it stimulates most cells but target bone and skeletal muscle to encourage growth. functions: stimulates most cells, but target bone and skeletal muscle to encourage growth. -promote protein synthesis and encourage the use of carbohydrates and fats for fuel. |
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thyroid stimulating hormone |
thyroid stimulating hormone (thyrotropin)- responsible for stimulating the normal development and secretory activity of the thyroid gland
released by hypothalamic peptide thyrotropin (TRH) until adequate titers of thyroid hormones have reached (negative feedback) |
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gonadotropin |
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) both regulate the function and development of the ovaries and testes and are triggered by the hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) during and after puberty. LH works alone to trigger ovulation. FSH stimulates egg or sperm and Luteinizing promotes estrogen and progesterone in women and testosterone in males. -LH works with FSH to cause maturation of the ovarian follicle. |
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Testosterone |
LH (luteinizing hormone) stimulates interstitial cells (of Leydig) of the testes to produce testosterone. It's dependent on nothing but adrenal corticosteroids. |
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prolactin |
triggered by hypothalamic prolactin releasing hormone. it stimulates milk production in females NOT SECRETION. blood levels rise towards the end of pregnancy. Suckling stimulates PHR release and encourages continued milk production (positive feedback) -inhibiting by both prolactin-inhibiting hormone and dopamine. |
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positive feedback |
enhances or amplifies an effect by it having an influence on the process which gave rise to it. ex. baby sucking on breast makes the body produce more milk |
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negative feedback |
the regulatory mechanism in which a stimulus causes an opposite output in order to maintain an ideal level of whatever is being regulated. the house gets hot so the AC turns on to cool down the house and will cut off when the temperature is where it's supposed to be. |
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oxytocin |
produced by hypothalamus by posterior pituitary
stimulates smooth muscle contraction in breasts and uterus. milk "letdown" and parturition (child birth). synthetic and natural oxytocin drugs are used to induce labor. plays a role in sexual arousal and satisfaction in males and nonlactating females. (not breastfeeding)
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Antidiuretic hormone |
-It's produced by the hypothalamus. hormone regulates water balance. Helps to produce dehydration by preventing the kidneys from releasing water in urine (this concentrates the urine). the more ADH released the more your unable to urinate (drinking alcohol inhibits ADH and makes you have to pee a lot)
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thyroid hormone |
The body's metabolic hormone (growth hormone) consists of T3 and T4. TH functions are glucose oxidation, increasing metabolic rate, and heat production TH plays a role in maintaining blood pressure, regulating tissue growth, developing skeletal and nervous systems, maturation and reproductive capabilities. |
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Calcitonin |
parafollicular cells produce the peptide hormone calcitonin. functions to lower blood calcium levels (negative feedback) inhibits calcium absorption by the intestines inhibits osteoclast activity in bones inhibits calcium and phosphate re-absorption by the kidney tubules. calcitonin is the antagonist to the parathyroid hormone (raises calcium when it's low) |
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roles and differences of T3 and T4 |
T4 thyroxine- has two tyrosine molecules plus four bound iodine atoms. T3 triiodothyronine- has two tyrosines molecules with three bound iodine atoms -both can bind to target receptors, but T3 is ten times more active than T4. -peripheral tissues convert T4 to T3 -regulation of T3 and T4 is by negative feedback |
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The three layers of the adrenal cortex and what hormones they are responsible for producing (matching) |
adrenal cortex synthesizes and releases steroid hormones called corticosteroids. Zona glomerulosa (most superficial) produces mineralocorticoids (chiefly aldosterone) functions to retain blood sodium levels. Zona fasciculata- produces glucocorticoids (chiefly cortisol) which function both in immunity as well as glucose metabolism (cortisol is stress hormone) Zona reticularis (deepest cortical layer) produces gonadocorticoids (chiefly androgens) which are responsible for the arrival of puberty, development of secondary sexual characteristics in the male (primarily) and sex drive in the males as well as female. |
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How is the adrenal cortex structurally, histologically, and functionally different from the adrenal medulla? |
They both are two glands in one: adrenal medulla- nervous tissue that acts as part of the SNS. Made up of chromaffin cells that secrete both epinephrine and norepinephrine Adrenal cortex is glandular tissue derived from embryonic mesoderm. synthesizes and releases steroid hormones called corticosteroids. |
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What are the stimulatory factors for the release of aldosterone? (aka mineralcorticoids sodium regulator) |
Rising blood levels of potassium K+ Low blood sodium Na+ Decreasing blood volume or pressure |
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What are the effects of atrial natriuretic peptide? |
inhibits release of aldosterone, reduces the water, sodium and adipose loads on the circulatory system, therefore reducing blood pressure |
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what are the function of cortisol in the body |
:the stress hormone" influences regulates or modulates many of the changes that occur in the body in response to stress including but not limited to blood sugar,fat,protein, and carbohydrate metabolism. (immune responses) |
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Explain why having why having excessive cortisol levels in the body is harmful to the body. (written) |
Even thought the body releases cortisol as a stress hormone. It keeps us in a homeostatic state when under stress until our stress ceases. when people have chronic stress, high levels of cortisol can cause health problems such as inhibit inflammation promotes changes in cardiovascular,neural and gastrointestinal function. depress cartilage and bone formation depress the immune system |
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functions of glucagon |
A 29 amino acid polypeptide hormone that is a potent hyperglycemic agent. Major target is the liver where it promotes glycogenolysis-the breakdown of glycogen to glucose gluconeogenesis-synthesis of glucose from lactic acid and noncarbohydrates. The release of glucose stored in the liver to the blood. |
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what hormones are produced by the pancreas and how are they different from one another? |
2 antagonistic hormones: alpha cells produce glucagon (detects the decrease of glucose) beta cells produce insulin (detects increases my glucose) |
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what effects can diabetes have on the body |
polyuria-huge urine output polydipsia- excessive thirst polyphagia- excessive hunger and food consumption |
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what is considered to be the most important function of testosterone? |
initiates maturation of male reproductive organs (makes dingaling and balls bigger) |
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what organ is essential for the development of T lymphocytes |
thymus located deep to the sternum in the thorax. |
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What are the characteristics and functions of leptin? |
leptin is an adipocyte-derived hormone that acts as a major regulator for food intake and energy homeostasis. insulin hormone stimulates leptin |
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What are formed elements |
Erythrocytes, or red blood cells (RBC's Leukocytes, or white blood cells (WBC's) Thrombocytes, or platelets |
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What is the definition of hematocrit |
The percentage of RBC's out of the total blood volume |
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Know the characteristics of blood |
-sticky, opaque fluid with a metallic taste due to iron. -color range from scarlet (oxygen rich) to dark red (oxygen poor). -The pH is 7.35-7.45 (can't be below 7.35 or above 7.45). -temperature is 38C (100.4F) slightly higher than normal body temperature. -about 8% of body -average volume of blood is 5-6 L for males and 4-5 L for females. |
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How do red blood cells obtain their energy to carry out cellular functions? |
Atp is generated anaerobically so it doesn't consume the energy from oxygen and it uses hemoglobin to transport the oxygen |
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How many molecules can each hemoglobin carry at one time |
4 molecules |
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what is the average maximum number of days that a red blood cell can live |
120 days |
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How red blood cells are created hematopoiesis- blood cell formation (occurs in the bone marrow) hemocytoblasts- stem cell(gives rise to all formed elements) |
hemocytoblasts transformed into committed proerythroblast--->early erythroblasts (then into 3 phases) phase 1- ribosome synthesis phase 2- hemoglobin accumulation (in late erythroblasts and normoblasts) phase 3- ejection of the nucleus from normoblasts and formation of reticulocytes reticulocytes then become mature erythrocytes |
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formation of leukocytes (leukopoiesis) stimulated by two families of cytokines |
originate from hemocytoblasts then differentiate into myeloid stem cells and lymphoid stem cells. myeloid stem cells become myeloblasts or monoblasts myeoblasts develop into eosinophils, neutrophils, and basophils. (BEN) monoblasts develop into monocytes lymphoid stem cells become lymphoblasts lymphoblasts develop into lymphocytes |
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How platelets(thrombocytes) are created |
The stem for platelets are hemocytoblast hemocytobalsts--> megakaryoblast---> promegakaryocyte---> megakaryocyte---> and platelets. They are just fragments of megakaryocyte. |
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what are the stimulatory factors for the release of erythropoietin? |
- Hypoxic conditions are present due to decreased RBC's - There is a decreased oxygen availability from the circulating RBC's -there is an increased tissue demand for oxygen |
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Where do we see iron stored in the body |
The body stores iron in Hb (65%) in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow. |
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What is the difference between the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways to coagulation? |
intrinsic is no trauma related only when you rupture capillary beds by walking the stairs or something; while extrinsic is tissue trauma related. |
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Understand the different type of anemias. |
hemorrhagic- acute or chronic loss of blood hemolytic- prematurely ruptured blood cells aplastic- decreased numbers due to destruction of blood marrow iron deficiency anemia- not enough iron absorption pernicious anemia- deficiency of B12 vitamin thalassemias- absent or faulty globin chain in hemoglobin sickle cell anemia- defective gene coding for an abnormal hemoglobin called (HbS) (single amino acid substitution the beta chain affects the whole thing and causes blood cells to be sickle-shaped |
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Be able to match the leukocyte with its correct characteristic and function |
neutrophils- take up both acidic and basic dyes (lilac color) BACTERIA SLAYER Eosinophils- account for 1-4% of WBC. Have crimson dark red color. The body's attack against parasitic worms and lessen the severity of allergies by phagocytizing immune complexes Basophils- 0.5% of WBC. have U-shaped or S-shaped nuclei. similar to mast cells. large, purplish-black granules contain histamine. attracts other WBC and bring them where they are needed. lymphocytes- most popular account for 25% of WBC. very large dark purple nuclei with a thin rim of cytoplasm. T cells- immune system response (attack mode) B cells- produce antibodies. monocytes- account for 4-8% They are very large equal to about 5RBC. have purple staining, U-shaped or kidney shaped nuclei. They leave the circulation, enter tissue, and differentiate into macrophages (apodeia). |
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what are cytokines and what are our greatest sources of cytokines |
cytokines are chemical messengers they let others know what's going on. (drive the production of WBC's Macrophages and T cells are the most important sources of cytokines. |
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Understand hemophilias and how they are different from one another |
hemophilias are hereditary bleeding disorders cause by lack of clotting factors. Hemophilia A- most common type (83% of all cases) due to a deficiency of factor VIII (2) Hemophilia B- results from a deficiency of factor IX. (11) Hemophilia C- mild type, caused by a deficiency of factor XI (10) |
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Why would we use "packed" red blood cells instead of whole blood to treat most anemias? |
because the antigens (ABO and Rh groups) on the surfaces of red blood cells are unique and if they're recognized as foreign they can cause transfusion reactions when they are improperly transfused. and whole blood is not separated still has plasma within it and is used in cases where people need a lot of blood. |
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coagulation |
A set of reactions in which blood is transformed from a liquid to a gel. intrinsic and extrinsic prothrombin---> thrombin---> joining of fibrinogen into a fibrin mesh. |
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what is the hemolytic disease of the newborn, "how is it caused, and understand how it is dangerous? (erythroblastosis fetalis) |
Rh+ antibodies from a sensitized Rh negative mother cross the placenta and attack and destroy the RBCs of a Rh+ baby. Rh negative mother is sensitized when Rh+ blood (from a previous pregnancy of a Rh+ baby or a Rh+ transfusion) causes her body to synthesize Rh+ antibodies. |
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Understand what blood types can be transfused and which ones cannot be transfused |
AB can receive- A, B, AB, O B can receive- B, O A can receive- A, O Ocan receive- only O |
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Understand what membrane antigens are present on red blood cells and antibodies that are produced in response to other red blood cell antigens in both the ABO and rhesus systems for blood typing. |
(ABO systems) The Two antigens are (A and B) The two antibodies are (anti-A & anti-B) Rhesus System) Antigen- agglutinogens) Rh+ Anti-Rh antibodies are not spontaneously formed in Rh negative individuals but if RH- person receives Rh+ blood anti-Rh antibodies form. A second exposure to RH+ blood will result into a transfusion reaction there are 8 different RH agglutinogens |
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something inhibit something releasing |
that means the hypothalamus produced it |
