A&p Exam I (Ppt)

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Human Anatomy & Physiology I

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Powerpoint #1

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______ is the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to each other.

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Anatomy

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______ is the study of the function of body parts.

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Physiology

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There are different approaches in the study of anatomy: ___ and ___ are just two examples.

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gross and microscopic

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Function is dependent on structure and the form of a structure relates to its function. It's called the ______.

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principle of complementarity of structure and function

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Levels of Structural Organization

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Atoms
Molecules
Cells
Tissues – 4 types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous. The study of tissues is called histology.
Organs
Organ systems – human body is composed of 11 major systems (integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems)
Organism

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Tissues – 4 types:

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epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous

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The study of tissues is called ____.

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histology

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Organ systems – human body is composed of 11 major systems

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integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems

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LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

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Answers

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Integumentary

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organs: skin

functions: protection, temperature regulation, sensation

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skeletal

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organs: bones, ligaments

functions: support, protection, movement, mineral, and fat storage, blood production

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muscular

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organs: skeletal muscles, tendons

functions: movement, posture, heat production

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nervous

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organs: brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory organs

functions: control, regulation, and coordination of other systems, sensation, memory

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endocrine

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organs: pituitary gland, adrenals, pancreas, thyroid, parathyroids, and other glands

functions: control and regulation of other systems

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cardiovascular

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organs: heart, arteries, veins, capillaries

functions: exchange and transport of minerals

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lymphatic

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organs: lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, spleen, thymus, tonsils

functions: immunity, fluid balance

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respiratory

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organs: lungs, bronchial tree, trachea, larynx, nasal cavity

functions: gas exchange, acid-base balance

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digestive

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organs: stomach, small and large intestines, esophagus, liver, mouth, pancreas

functions: breakdown and absorption of nutrients, elimintation of waste

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urinary

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organs: kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra

functions: excretion of waste, fluid and electrolyte balance, acid-base balance

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reproductive

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organs:

male: testes, vas deferens, prostate seminal vesicles, penis

female: ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, breasts

functions: reproduction, continuity of genetic information, nurturing of offspring

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Defined as the ability of the body to maintain a relatively constant internal environment, regardless of external environmental changes.

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Homeostasis

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Components of homeostatic control mechanisms:

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Receptor

Control Center

Effector

Negative feedback control systems

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monitors changes in the environment and sends information to the control center

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Receptor

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determines the set point for a variable, analyzes input, and determines an appropriate response.

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Control center

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carries out the response

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Effector

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oppose a change by creating an opposite response.

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Negative feedback control systems

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Homestasis

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___ ___ are spaces within the body that are closed to the outside and contain the internal organs.

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Body cavities

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___ ___ contains the body organs or viscera and is subdivided into the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.

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Ventral cavity

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The ___ ___ is subdivided into the cranial and vertebral cavities.

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dorsal cavity

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___ ___ cover the inner walls of the ventral cavity and the outer surfaces of organs.

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Serous membranes

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Types of serous membranes

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Pleura
Peritoneum
Pericardium

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Body Cavities

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Body Cavities

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Cavities

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Abdominalpelvic Cavity

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Consult text for detailed organ listing

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The Language of Anatomy

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Language of Anatomy

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the body is erect, palms face forward, and thumbs point away from the body.

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Anatomical position

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Regional Terms

the head, neck, and trunk

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Axial region

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Regional Terms

upper and lower limbs

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Appendicular region

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Represent cuts or sections through the body along an axis or line of orientation

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Body Planes and Sections

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divides body into right and left parts

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Sagittal plane

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equal right and left halves

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midsagittal (median)

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anterior + posterior parts

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Coronal (frontal)

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crosswise section into upper and lower parts

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Transverse (horizontal plane or cross section)

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Planes

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Anatomical Directions

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Directional terms

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away from the midsagittal plane

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Lateral

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toward the midsagittal plane

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Medial

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front

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Anterior

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back or rear

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Posterior

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toward the top

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Superior

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toward the bottom

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Inferior

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along or toward the vertebral surface

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Dorsal

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along or toward the belly surface

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Ventral

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toward the tail

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Caudal

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toward the head

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Cephalad

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toward the trunk or start of a part

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Proximal

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away from the trunk, toward the end of a structure

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Distal

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toward/ near/ along an internal organ

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Visceral

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toward the wall, away from the internal organ(s)

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Parietal

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toward the inside

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Deep

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toward the surface

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Superficial

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on the same side

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Ipsilateral

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on the opposite side

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Contralateral

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toward the tip

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apical

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toward the bottom

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basal

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same on both sides

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bilateral symmetry

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the outer part

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cortical

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open space within a tubular structure

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lumen

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unknown origin

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idiopathic

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CELLS

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The Cell Theory

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A ____ is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms.

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cell

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The ___ of an organism depends on both the individual and collective activities of its cells

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activity

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According to the _____ __ ____, the biochemical activities of cells are dictated by the specific subcellular structures of cells.

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principle of complementarity

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Continuity of life has a ___ basis.

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cellular

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Typical cell

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Parts of a cell (8)

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Plasma membrane
Mitochondria
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes
Cilia and flagella
Nucleus

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Plasma membrane

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Plasma membrane

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Electron photomicrograph of two adjacent plasma membranes

This figure actually shows two adjacent plasma membranes, both of which have the "unit membrane" structure. Membranes are vital  because they separate the cell from the outside world.  They also separate compartments inside the cell to protect important processes and events.

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Electron photomicrograph of two adjacent plasma membranes

This figure actually shows two adjacent plasma membranes, both of which have the "unit membrane" structure. Membranes are vital  because they separate the cell from the outside world.  They also separate compartments inside the cell to protect important processes and events.

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Fluid Mosaic Model

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Model

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The plasma membrane is composed of

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A lipid bilayer of phospholipids

Cholesterol is embedded in the lipid portion of the membrane

Two populations of proteins are present:

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A lipid bilayer of phospholipids:

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The polar phosphate-containing heads are hydrophilic and face the internal and external aqueous environments

The non-polar fatty acid chains are hydrophobic and are directed inward to the center of the membrane

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Two populations of proteins are present:

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Integral proteins span the entire membrane

Peripheral proteins are associated with the inner and outer surfaces of the membrane

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Other molecules associated with cell membranes

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Glycolipids—externally facing phospholipids with attached sugar groups
Glycoproteins—branching sugar groups associated with proteins on the external surface of the cell

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externally facing phospholipids with attached sugar groups

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Glycolipids

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branching sugar groups associated with proteins on the external surface of the cell

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Glycoproteins

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How do peripheral proteins differ from integral proteins?

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Note the glycoproteins that function as biological markers and are important in cell recognition.

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Functions of membrane proteins

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Most integral proteins are transmembrane proteins that span the entire membrane and function in transport either as carriers or by forming channels for the transport of water-soluble molecules

Peripheral proteins are not embedded in the lipid bilayer—some support the membrane, others function as enzymes

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phospholipids . These have a polar head group and two hydrocarbon tails. An example of a phospholipid is shown in this figure (right). The top region beginning with the NH3 is the polar group. It is connected by glycerol to two fatty acid tails.

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phospholipids . These have a polar head group and two hydrocarbon tails. An example of a phospholipid is shown in this figure (right). The top region beginning with the NH3 is the polar group. It is connected by glycerol to two fatty acid tails.

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Cholesterol makes the lipid bilayer less deformable and decreases its permeability to small water-soluble molecules.

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Cholesterol makes the lipid bilayer less deformable and decreases its permeability to small water-soluble molecules.

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Membrane Transport

The cell membrane is a differentially ___ barrier

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permeable

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Substances move through the membrane in two ways:

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Passively (without any energy use on the part of the cell)

Actively (with the cell providing the energy for the transport)

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Passive Processes

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Simple diffusion

Osmosis

Facilitated diffusion

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the movement of molecules from areas where they in in high concentration to areas where they are in low concentration

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Simple diffusion

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Molecules which diffuse through the membrane are

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Oxygen and carbon dioxide
Fat-soluble vitamins
Alcohol

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the diffusion of water through the membrane (water is able to diffuse through the lipid bilayer along its gradient)

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Osmosis

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passive transport involving a carrier

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Facilitated diffusion

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Facilitated diffusion: passive transport involving a carrier

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Carriers are transmembrane proteins that are specific for the molecules they transport

Molecules that utilize facilitated diffusion include glucose, amino acids and ions

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The ability of a solution to change the shape of cells by altering their internal water volume

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tonicity

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___ solutions have the same concentration of non-penetrating solutes as that of cells (0.9% saline)

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Isotonic

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___ solutions have lower concentrations than those of cells

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Hypotonic

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____ solutions have higher concentrations than those of cells

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Hypertonic

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Normal RBC

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Red blood cells placed in a hypertonic solution undergo crenation.

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Crenated

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Active Processes

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Active transport

sodium-potassium pump

Vesicular transport

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the movement of solutes into and out of cells against their concentration gradients; requires carrier proteins that are specific for the transported substances.

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Active transport

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The ___ ___ ___ is an example of active transport—the pump works to maintain potassium concentrations 30-50 times higher in cells; the reverse is true for sodium.

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sodium-potassium pump

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the transport of large particles, macromolecules, and fluids.

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Vesicular transport

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Vesicular transport

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exocytosis moves substances outside of the cell

endocytosis moves substance into the cell

phagocytosis (cell-eating) is a special kind of
endocytosis used by macrophages in engulfing bacteria

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Image

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Image

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The cellular material between the plasma membrane and the nucleus

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Cytoplasm

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Three major components of cytoplasm

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Cytosol

Cytoplasmic organelles

Inclusions

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the viscous fluid in with the other cytoplasmic elements are suspended; mostly water with proteins, salts, sugars and other solutes

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Cytosol

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tiny machines that perform specific functions for the cell

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Cytoplasmic organelles

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stored nutrients and pigments found in some cells

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Inclusions

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Organelles

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Image

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the power plants of the cell; they provide most of the cell’s energy in the form of ATP. The more metabolically active the cell, the greater its density of mitochondria.

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Mitochondria

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small dark-staining granules of proteins and RNA; sites of protein synthesis

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Ribosomes

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Mitochondria are the cells' power sources. They are distinct organelles with two membranes. Usually they are rod-shaped, however they can be round. The outer membrane limits the organelle. The inner membrane is thrown into folds or shelves that project inward. These are called "cristae mitochondriales".

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Mitochondria are the cells' power sources. They are distinct organelles with two membranes. Usually they are rod-shaped, however they can be round. The outer membrane limits the organelle. The inner membrane is thrown into folds or shelves that project inward. These are called "cristae mitochondriales".

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extensive system of membranes that extends through the cytosol and is continuous with the nuclear membrane.

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Endoplasmic reticulum

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Two types of ER:

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Rough and Smooth

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studded with ribosomes and functions in protein synthesis

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Rough ER

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functions in lipid synthesis

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Smooth ER

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Cilia

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consists of stacked, flattened membranous sacs and vesicles; it modifies and packages the proteins and lipids synthesized in the rough and smooth ER.

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Golgi apparatus

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membrane-bound organelles containing digestive enzymes, abundant in phagocytes and necessary for intracellular digestion.

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Lysosomes

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The Golgi complex is like the cell's packaging and shipping department. It is made up of a stack of flattened membrane sacks. Some of the protein being transported through the canals of the endoplasmic reticulum ends up in the Golgi complex. Here it may be joined with other molecules before being "packaged". The packages are little pieces of the Golgi complex which break off and form "vesicles". The vesicles move to the cell membrane and fuse with it. It may the squirt its contents outside of the cell as a secretion. Or the product assembled in the Golgi complex may be a new piece of the cell membrane itself. In that case the vesicle fuses with the membrane and becomes a part of it

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Image

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Image

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Cellular Extensions

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Cilia and Flagella

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whip like, motile cellular extensions found on some cells, cilia function in movement of substances directionally along cell surfaces

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Cilia

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much longer than cilia, only one per cell—in the human body found only on sperm cells; function in propelling the cells themselves

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Flagella

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Cilia

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Cilia

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Flagella

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Flagella

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Control center of the cell

Contains one or more nucleoli, sites where ribosomes are made

Contains DNA (the genetic material) arranged in chromosomes

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Nucleus

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All body cells are nucleated except

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mature red blood cells

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Nucleus bound by a ___ ___ with nuclear pores

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nuclear envelope

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Name the RNA molecules that travel through the nuclear pores and carry the code for protein synthesis.

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Name the RNA molecules that travel through the nuclear pores and carry the code for protein synthesis.

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Protein Synthesis

A ____ is a segment of a DNA molecule that carries instructions for creating a protein

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gene

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The code for building a protein is copied by a messenger RNA molecule in a process called ___

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transcription

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___ leaves the nucleus and attaches to a ribosome where the code is “read” by transfer RNA molecules

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mRNA

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tRNA molecules match amino acids to the triplet codons of mRNA in a process known as __

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translation

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The newly synthesized ___ may remain in the cell or be packaged and secreted of use in another location

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protein

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___ remains within epidermal cells as a structural protein

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Keratin

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___ in produced by red blood cells when they are forming in bone marrow; it remains in the cells and functions in transport of blood gases

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Hemoglobin

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Digestive enzymes are secreted by ___for extracellular functions

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exocytosis

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What are the major lipid types found in plasma membranes?
Cells lose water in ___________ solutions.
The RNA synthesized on one of the DNA strands is called ________.
Name the organelle that is the major site of ATP synthesis.
What organelle contains enzymes?

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If a cell loses or ejects its nucleus, what is its fate and why?
What is the role of the glycoproteins found on the surface of the cell?
A chemotherapeutic drug, adriamycin, used to treat cancer, binds to DNA and blocks mRNA synthesis. Why is this fatal to cells?

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Biochemistry forAnatomy & Physiology Students

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Slide #2

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All matter is composed of ___ – unique substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances

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elements

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Four elements – ___ ____ ____ ___ – make up 96% of our body weight

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carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen

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Each element is composed identical particles or building blocks called ___

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atoms

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Bonds

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Molecules

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Two or more atoms may combine to form a distinctive type of particle called a molecule

The molecular formula for water is H2O which indicates two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen form each molecule
If atoms of the same element combine, they produce molecules of that element

If atoms of different elements combine, the molecule that forms is referred to as a compound

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Bonds

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Ionic Bonds

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Covalent Bonds

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Formation of Covalent

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Covalent

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Water--H2O

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Water makes up 60—80% of the volume of most living cells.

It is a polar molecule, meaning that it has unequal electron bond sharing.

Water is the universal solvent.

Hydrogen bonds form between water molecules as well as between other strongly polar molecules.

Hydrogen bonds are responsible for the high surface tension of water and are responsible for the three-dimensional shape of proteins and DNA.

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Water molecules showing the hydrogen bonding that exists between negatively charged oxygen and positively charged hydrogen.

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Acids and Bases

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Acids dissociate in water to yield hydrogen ions and anions (negatively charged particles).

Bases absorb hydrogen ions.

The relative concentration of hydrogen ions is measured in concentration units called pH units.

The pH scale extends from 0—14; a pH of 7 is neutral; a pH below 7 is acidic; a pH above 7 is basic or alkaline.

Acids and bases neutralize each other. When mixed together they form a salt and water.

Buffers resist large fluctuations in pH that would damage living tissues.