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642 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
groups of cells similar in structure that perform common or related function |
tissues |
|
study of tissues |
histology |
|
which tissue covers |
epithelial |
|
which tissue supports |
connective |
|
which tissue produces movement |
muscle |
|
which tissue controls |
nerve |
|
examples of nervous tissue |
brain spinal cord nerves |
|
________ muscle is attached to bones |
skeletal |
|
_________ muscles = heart |
cardiac |
|
__________ muscles are those on the walls on hollow organs |
smooth |
|
which tissue lines the digestive tract organs |
epithelial |
|
examples of connective tissue |
bones tendons fat |
|
what does staining do in terms of microscopy |
enhances contrast |
|
two main types of epithelial tissue by location |
covering and lining grandular |
|
where is glandular epithelia located |
secretory tissue in glands |
|
functions of epithelial tissues |
protection absorption filtration excreting secretion sensory reception |
|
5 characteristics of epithelial tissues |
polarity specialized contacts supported by connective tissues avascular can regenerate |
|
types of polarity in epithelial cells |
apical surface basal surface |
|
upper, free tissue that is exposed to exterior or cavity |
apical surface |
|
lower, attached tissue (polarity) |
basal surface |
|
most _______ surfaces of epithelial tissue has microvilli |
apical |
|
apical tissue that has microvilli |
brush border of intestinal lining |
|
which apical tissue has cilia |
lining of trachea |
|
_______ - glycoprotein and collagen fibers that lie adjacent to basal surface |
basal lamina |
|
the ___________ has adhesive sheets and selective filters |
basal lamina |
|
________ produces scaffolding for cell migration in wound repair |
basal lamina |
|
what are the lateral contacts |
tight junctions desmosomes |
|
_________ are specialized contacts that bind adjacent cells |
lateral contacts |
|
________ is deep to basal lamina, network of collagen fibers |
reticular lamina |
|
basal lamina + reticular lamina = ________ |
basement membrane |
|
the __________ reinforces the epithelial sheet, and resists stretching and tearing |
basement membrane |
|
the _______ defines the epithelial boudary |
basement membrane |
|
there are no blood vessels in ________ tissue |
epithelial |
|
how is epithelial tissue nourished |
by diffusion from underlying connective tissues |
|
_______ tissue is supplied by nerve fibers |
epithelial |
|
regeneration of epithelial tissue is stimulated by __________ and ______ |
loss of apical-basal polarity lateral contacts |
|
how are epithelial cells damaged |
exposed to friction exposed to hostile substances |
|
with adequate nutrients, epithelial cells can replace lost cells by _____ |
cell division |
|
_______ epithelia = single layer of cells |
simple |
|
______ epithelia = two or more layers of cells |
stratified |
|
names to indicate cell shape in epithelium |
squamous cuboidal columnar |
|
epithelia is classified by cell shape in ______ layer |
apical |
|
________ cells are flattened and scale like, nucleus is flattened |
squamous |
|
______ cells are boxlike and have round nuclei |
cuboidal |
|
_______ cells are tall and column shaped, nucleus is elongated |
colmnar |
|
characteristics of simple epithelia |
absorption secretion filtration very thin |
|
ex. of simple squamous epithelium |
kidney , lungs |
|
_________ epithelium function where rapid diffusion is priority |
simple squamous |
|
fxn of simple squamous |
allows material to pass via diffusion secretes lubricating substances |
|
two special types of simple squamous |
endothelium mesothelium |
|
endothelium is the lining of: |
lymphatic vessels, blood vessels, and heart |
|
the mesothelium is the epithelium of _________ int he ventral body cavity |
serous membranes |
|
single layer of cells used for secretion and absorption (epithelium) |
simple cuboidal |
|
_________ epithelia forms walls of smallest ducts of glands and many kidney tubules |
simple cuboidal |
|
single layers of tall closely packed cells used in absorption and secretion |
simple columnar |
|
location of simple columnar |
digestive tract, galbladder, excretory ducts |
|
epithelium that cells vary in height |
pseudostratified columnar |
|
function of pseudostratified |
secrete substances such as mucus |
|
location of pseudostratified |
sperm trachea |
|
tissue that regenerates from below and has a major role of protection |
stratified epithelial |
|
cells that are farthest away from the ___________ are less viable due to nutrient deficiencies |
basal layer |
|
location of stratified squamous |
lining esophagus, mouth, and vagina |
|
location of stratified cuboidal epithelium |
sweat and mammary glands |
|
location of stratified columnar |
pharynx, male urethra |
|
_______ epithelium forms the lining of hollow urinary organs |
transitional |
|
______ epithelium has the ability to change shape with stretch |
transitional |
|
location of transitional epithelium |
urinary bladder |
|
_______: one or more cells that makes and secretes an aqueous fluid called a secretion |
gland |
|
glands are classified by: |
- site of product release -relative number of cells forming the gland |
|
types of product release |
endocrine exocrine |
|
______ glands - secretions not released into a duct |
ductless |
|
_______ glands secrete hormones by exocytosis that travel through lymph or blood to their specific target organs |
ductless |
|
_______ glands: secretions are released onto body surfaces or into body cavities |
exocrine |
|
exocrine glands secrete products into _____ |
ducts |
|
examples of exocrine secretions |
mucous, sweat, oil, and salivary glands |
|
the important unicellular glands are _______ and ______ cells |
mucous and goblet |
|
the exocrine glands are found in: |
epithelial lining of intestinal and respiratory tracts |
|
exocrine glands produce ______ |
mucin |
|
mucin dissolves water to form ______ |
mucus |
|
slimy, protective, lubricating coating |
mucus |
|
multicellular exocrine glands are composed of a ______ and _________ |
duct secretory unit |
|
multicellular exocrine glands are usually surrounded by supportive ______ |
connective tissue |
|
connective tissue supplies ______ and ______ to the glands |
blood and nerve fibers |
|
simple glands contain _____ ducts |
unbranched |
|
compound glands contain ______ ducts |
branched |
|
_________ - secrete product by exocytosis as produced |
merocrine |
|
_________ - accumulate products then rupture |
holocrine |
|
________ - accumulates products within but only apex ruptures |
apocrine |
|
ex of simple tubular structure |
intestinal glands |
|
example of simple branched tubular |
stomach glands |
|
example of compound tubular |
deodenal glands |
|
ex. of simple branched alveolar |
sebaceous glands |
|
ex. of compound alveolar |
mammary glands |
|
ex. of compound tubuloalveolar |
salivary glands |
|
four main classes of connective tissue |
connective tissue proper cartilage bone blood |
|
subclasses of connective tissue prober |
loose connective tissue dense connective tissue |
|
types of loose connective tissue |
areolar adipose reticular |
|
types of dense connective tissue |
regular irregular elastic |
|
types of cells found in connective tissue proper |
fibroblasts fibrocytes defense cells adipocytes |
|
matrix of connective tissue |
gel-like ground substance
|
|
types of fibers found in connective tissue proper |
collager, reticular, elastic |
|
______ functions in binding tissue and results in mechanical stress such as tension |
connective tissue proper |
|
types of cartilage |
hyaline elastic fibrocartilage |
|
types of cells found in cartilage |
chondrocytes chondroblasts |
|
types of matrix in cartilage |
gel like ground substance |
|
types of fibers found in cartilage |
collagen elastic
|
|
_______ fxns to cushion and support body structures |
cartilage |
|
cartilage resists compression b/c: |
large amounts of water held in the matrix |
|
types of bone tissue |
compact bone spongy bone |
|
types of cells in bone tissue |
osteoblasts osteocytes |
|
type of matrix found in bone tissue |
gel-like ground substance with calcified inorganic salts |
|
types of fibers found in bone tissue |
collagen |
|
______ = hard tissue that resists both compression and tension |
bone tissue |
|
types of cells in blood tissue |
erythrocytes (RBCs) leukocytes (WBCs) platelets |
|
type of matrix in blood tissue |
plasma |
|
what type of fiber is found in blood tissue |
none |
|
______ = a fluid tissue |
blood |
|
________ tissue functions to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide |
blood |
|
functions of connective tissue |
binding and support protecting insulating storing reserve fuel transporting substances (blood) |
|
3 characteristics that make connective tissue different from other primary tissues |
-have mesenchyme -have varying degrees of vascularity - have extracellular matrix |
|
_________ = embryonic tissue in connective tissue |
mesenchyme |
|
three structural elements of connective tissue |
ground substance fibers cells |
|
________ = unstructured material that fills space between cells |
ground substance |
|
ground substance = medium through which solutes diffuse between _______ and ______ |
blood capillaries cells |
|
components of the ground substance |
-interstitial fluid -cell adhesion proteins -proteoglycans |
|
_________ are known as "glue" for attachment in the ground substance |
cell adhesion proteins |
|
__________: trap water in varying amounts and affect viscosity of the ground substance |
proteoglycans |
|
_______ strongest most abundant type of fiber that provides high tensile strength |
collagen |
|
_________: networks of long, thin elastin fibers that allow for stretch and recoil |
elastic fibers |
|
_______: short, fine highly branched collagenous fibers |
reticular |
|
_______ blasts cells = mitotically active and secrete ground substance and fibers |
immature |
|
examples of immature blasts cells |
fibroblasts chondroblasts osteoblasts hematopoietic stem cell
|
|
_______ blasts cells maintain matrix |
mature |
|
types of mature blasts cells |
chondrocytes osteocytes |
|
________ cells store nutrients |
fat |
|
types of white blood cells |
neutrophils eosinophils lymphocytes |
|
______ cells: initiate local inflammatory response against foreign microorganisms they detect |
mast cells |
|
________ = phagocytic cells that eat dead cells and microorganisms |
macrophages |
|
when areolar connective tissue is inflamed it soaks up fluid, this process is called _______ |
edema |
|
function of areolar connective |
wraps and cushions organs macrophages phagocytize bacteria important role in inflammation holds and conveys tissue fluid |
|
cell of white fat |
adipocyte |
|
_______ tissue is similar to areolar but has greater nutrient storage |
adipose |
|
fxns of adipose tissue |
shock absorption insulation energy storage |
|
fxn of brown fat |
use lipid fuels to heat bloodstream |
|
location of adipose tissue |
under skin around kidneys eyeballs abdomen breasts |
|
reticular connective tissue has fibroblasts called _______ cells |
reticular |
|
fxn of reticular conn. tissue |
supports free blood cells in lymph nodes, spleen and bone marrow |
|
fxn of reticular connective |
forms soft internal skeleton that supports white blood cells, macrophages, and mast cells |
|
location of reticular tissue |
lymph nodes bone marrow spleen |
|
____________ tissue: great resistance to pulling, slightly wavy to stretch slightly; poorly vascularized |
dense regular conn |
|
dense reg conn fxn |
attach muscles to bones/muscles great tensile strength
|
|
location of dense reg conn |
tendons, ligaments |
|
dense irregular conn resists tension from: |
dermis fibrous joint capsules fibrous coverings of some organs |
|
dense irregular conn function |
withstand tension structural strength |
|
dense irregular conn location |
dermis digestive tract joints |
|
location of elastic conn tissue |
large arteries |
|
elastic conn fxn |
tissue recoil after stretching blood flow through arteries recoil of lungs after inspiration |
|
location of elastic conn |
walls of large arteries |
|
cartilage is __________; has to receive nutrients from its membrane surrounding it |
avascular |
|
membrane that surrounds cartilage and provides nutrients |
perichondrium |
|
_________; lacks nerve fibers and is 80% water |
cartilage |
|
location of hyaline cartilage |
ends of long bones, ribs, nose, trachea, and larynx |
|
location of elastic cartilage |
external ear epiglottis |
|
________ maintains the shape of the structure while allowing great flexibility |
elastic cartilage |
|
_______: tensile strength allows it to absorb compressive shock |
fibrocartilage |
|
location of fibrocartilage |
intervertebral discs discs in knee |
|
bone is also called ________ tissue |
osseous |
|
________ synthesizes blood cells in cavities |
bone |
|
bone contains more ________ than cartilage |
collagen |
|
_________ produce the matrix in bone |
osteoblasts |
|
_________ maintain the matrix in bone |
osteocytes |
|
________ = structural units of bone |
osteons |
|
_________ is richly vascularized (conn tissue) |
bone |
|
fxn of bone tissue |
provides levers for the muscles to act on stores calcium and minerals blood cell formation |
|
_______ = blood cell formation |
hematopoiesis |
|
_______ tissue is highly vascularized and responsible for most types of movement |
muscle |
|
types of muscle tissue |
skeletal cardiac smooth |
|
describe cardiac muscle |
branching striated intercalated discs |
|
fxn of smooth muscle |
propels objects along internal passageways involuntary control |
|
location of nervous tissue |
brain spinal cord nerves |
|
______ = specialized nerve cells that generate and conduct nerve impulses |
neurons |
|
________ = supporting cells that support, insulate, and protect neurons |
neuroglia |
|
three types of lining membranes |
cutaneous mucous serous |
|
ex. of cutaneous membrane |
skin |
|
epidermis is made up of _________ and is attached to the dermis which is made up of ______ |
keratinized stratified squamous epithelium dense irregular connective tissue |
|
______ membranes are dry |
cutaneous |
|
the _______ membrane covers the body surface |
cutaneous |
|
______ lines body cavities that are open to the exterior |
mucosa |
|
______ membranes are moist and bathed by secretions |
mucous |
|
epithelial sheet that lies over a layer of connective tissue is called _____ |
lamina propria |
|
______ membranes are found in closed, ventral body cavity |
serousa |
|
serous membranes rest on _______ tissue |
areolar connective |
|
_______ serosae line internal body cavity walls |
parietal |
|
______ serosae cover internal organs |
visceral |
|
_______ fluid is found inbetween layers of serous membranes |
serous fluid |
|
types of serous membranes |
plurae pericardium peritoneum |
|
_______ membranes line body cavities that are closed to the exterior |
serous |
|
two ways of tissue repair |
regeneration fibrosis |
|
in _______: the same kind of tissue replaces destroyed tissue; original fxn restored |
regeneration |
|
in ________: connective tissue replaces destroyed tissue; original fxn lost |
fibrosis |
|
what happens during inflammation |
release of inflammatory chemicals dilation of blood vessels increase in vessel permeability clotting occurs |
|
step 1 of tissue repair |
inflammation |
|
steps of blood clotting |
severed blood vessles bleed inflammatory chemicals released WBCs, fluid, clotting proteins come to injurd area clotting occurs and forms scab |
|
step 2 of tissue repair |
organization restores blood supply |
|
steps of restoration of blood supply |
blood clot replaced with granulation tissue epithelium beings to regenerate fibroblasts produce collagen fibers to bridge the gap debris is phagocytized |
|
step 3 in tissue repair |
regeneration and fibrosis |
|
steps of regeneration and fibrosis |
scab detaches fibrous tissue matures;epithelium thickens results in regenerated epithelium with underlying scar tissue |
|
which tissues regenerate well |
epithelial bone areolar connective dense irregular conn blood-forming tissue |
|
which tissues have moderate regenerating capacity |
smooth muscle dense regular conn |
|
which tissues have no regenerative capacity |
cardiac muscle nervous tissue of brain and spinal cord |
|
name the primary germ layers |
ectoderm mesoderm endoderm |
|
which tissues arise from the ectoderm |
nerve tissue |
|
which tissues arise from the mesoderm |
muscle and connective |
|
which tissues are from all three germ layers |
epithelial |
|
when tissue repair is less efficient during aging, tissues being a process called _____ |
atrophy |
|
atrophy can cause _________ which increase cancer risk |
DNA mutations |
|
______ cells are response to injury |
white blood cells |
|
two distinct regions of the skin |
epidermis dermis |
|
_______ = subcutaneous layer under skin |
hypodermis |
|
the hypodermis anchors skin to ______ |
muscles |
|
name the 5 distinct layers of the epidermis |
stratum basale spinosum granulosum lucidum corneum |
|
what layer of the epidermis is only present in thick skin |
lucidum |
|
what are the four cell types of the epidermis |
keratinocytes melanocytes dendritic cells tactile cells |
|
dendritic or ______ cells |
langerhans
|
|
tactile or ______ cells |
merkel |
|
superficial layer made up of dead cells |
stratum corneum |
|
s. corneum has flat membranous sacs filled will ________, and has _______ in the extracellular space |
keratin glycolipids |
|
epidermis layer that is typically 5 layers of flattened cells |
s. granulosum |
|
stratum granulosum has a cytoplasm full of ______ and ______ granules |
lamellar keratohyaline |
|
_______ granules release lipids |
lamellar |
|
s. spinosum has several layers of keratinocytes unified by ______ |
desmosomes |
|
stratum spinosum cells contain thick bundels of ________ made up of pre-keratin |
intermediate filaments |
|
epithelial layer that contains actively mitotic stem cells |
s. basale |
|
keratinocytes produce __________ |
keratin |
|
keratinocytes are tightly connected by _______ |
desmosomes |
|
melanocytes produce the pigment ______ |
melanin |
|
melanin is packaged into _____ |
melanosomes |
|
_______ make up most cells of the epidermis |
keratinocytes |
|
_______ protects the apical surface of keratinocyte nucleus from UV damage |
melanin |
|
_______ cells arise from the bone marrow and migrate to the epidermis |
dendritic |
|
_________ cells in the epidermis ingest foreign substances and are key activators of our immune system |
dendritic |
|
__________ cells function as a sensory receptor for touch |
tactile/merkel |
|
S. basale or S. ________ |
germinativum |
|
cell layer that is a single row of stem cells |
basale |
|
in S. basale, a stem cell produces two daughter cells following mitosis. Explain what happens to each |
1. journeys from basal to surface 2. remains in the s. basale as a stem cell |
|
how long does it take for a cell to move from s. basale to suraface |
25-45 days |
|
melanocytes compose ______% of s. basale |
10-25% |
|
how many cell layers in s. granulosum |
4-6 |
|
in s. ________, keratinization begins |
granulosum |
|
cells accumulate lamellar granules b/c |
their water resistant glycolipid slows water loss |
|
cells accumulate ________ to help form keratin in upper layers |
keratohyaline granules |
|
why do cells above the s. granulosum die |
too far from dermal capillaries |
|
cell layer that is 20-30 rows of dead, flat, anucleate keratinized membranous sacs |
s. corneum |
|
functions of dead cells in the epidermis |
-protect deeper cells from environment and water loss -protect from abrasion and penetration -barrier against biological and physical assaults |
|
cell layer that makes up 3/4 of epidermis |
s. corneum |
|
cells change from s. basale to s. coreum by a process of ________ |
apoptosis |
|
________ = controlled cellular suicide |
apoptosis |
|
we shed ~_________ cells every minute |
50,000 |
|
cells in the dermis |
fibroblasts macrophages mast cells white blood cells
|
|
which part of the skin contains nerve fibers and blood/lymphatic vessels |
dermis |
|
_______ contains hair follicles, and oil/sweat glands |
dermis |
|
two layers of dermis |
papillary reticular
|
|
papillary layer is made up of: |
areolar connective tissue collagen/elastic fibers blood vessels |
|
why is the papillary layer loose tissue |
phagocytes can patrol for microorganisms |
|
_________ are superficial peglike projections in the dermis |
dermal papillae |
|
what do dermal papillae contain |
capillary loops meissners corpuscles (touch receptors) free nerve endings (pain receptors) |
|
_____________ are responsible as touch receptors in the skin |
meissners corpuscles |
|
in thick skin, dermal papillae can lie atop ________ that enhance gripping ability |
friction ridges |
|
friction ridges contribute to sense of _____ |
touch |
|
layer of the dermis that makes up 80% of it |
reticular |
|
reticular layer of dermis is made up of what type of tissue |
dense fibrous connective tissue |
|
most collagen fibers produce ________ that are important to surgeons |
cleavage lines |
|
incisions that are parallel to __________, gap less and heal more quickly |
cleavage lines |
|
_________, provide strength and bind water in the dermis |
collagen fibers |
|
_________ are dermal folds at or near joints |
flexure lines |
|
flexure lines are visible on: |
hands wrists fingers soles toes |
|
flexure lines is where the dermis is tightly secured to _________ |
deeper structures |
|
why do flexure lines create deep creases |
skin cannot slide easily for joint movement |
|
_______ are silvery-white scars |
striae |
|
striae are known as ________ |
stretch marks |
|
_______ are caused by extreme stretching resulting in dermal tears |
striae |
|
________ form from acute, short-term trauma in the skin |
blister |
|
________ are fluid filled pockets that separates epidermal and dermal layers |
blisters |
|
three pigments that contribute to skin color |
melanin carotene hemoglobin |
|
only pigment made in the skin |
melanin |
|
_________ migrates to keratinocytes to form "pigment shields" for nuclei |
melanin |
|
freckels and moles are local accumulations of _____ |
melanin |
|
___________ stimulates melanin prouction |
sun exposure |
|
sun spots are a ________, not related to melanin |
fungal infection |
|
yellow to orange pigment that is most obvious in palms and soles |
carotene |
|
carotene accumulates in the ____ and ___ |
s. corneum hypodermis |
|
carotene can be converted to _______ for vision and epidermal health |
vitamin A |
|
________ causes a pinkish hue in fair skin individuals |
hemoglobin |
|
________ = blue skin color |
cyanosis |
|
_______ is due to low oxygenation of hemoglobin |
cyanosis |
|
______ causes redness of the skin |
erythema |
|
erythema is due to: |
fever hypertension inflammation allergy |
|
_______ is known as blanching |
pallor (pale) |
|
pallor is caused by: |
anemia low blood pressure fear anger |
|
_______ is a yellow coloring of the skin |
jaundice |
|
jaundice is caused by a ______ |
liver disorder |
|
bronzing in skin is caused by: |
inadequate steroid hormones in addisons disease |
|
bruises are due to: |
clotted blood beneath the skin |
|
derivatives of the epidermis |
hair/hair follicles nails sweat/oil glands |
|
_______ = dead keratinized cells of hard keratin |
hair |
|
hair is not located in: |
palms soles lips nipples portions of external genitalia |
|
functions of hair |
warns of insects on skin physical trauma heat loss sunlight |
|
_________ is the hair pigment in red hair |
trichosiderin |
|
grey/white hair is caused by" |
decreased melanin production increased air bubbles in shaft |
|
parts of the hair follicle |
hair bulb arrector pili hair papilla |
|
parts of the hair bulb |
hair follicle receptor sensory nerve endings hair matrix |
|
______ = smooth muscle attached to follicle that is responsible for goosebumps |
arrector pili |
|
_________ is the dermal tissue used for blood supply in hair follicles |
hair papilla |
|
_______ hair = pale, fine body hair of children and adult females |
vellus |
|
_________ hair = coarse, long hair of eyebrows and scalp |
terminal |
|
we lose _____ scalp hairs daily |
90 |
|
______ and _____ affect hair growth |
nutrition and hormones |
|
hair follicles cycle between ____ and _____ phases |
active regressive |
|
_______ = hair thinning after age 40 |
alopecia |
|
baldness is determined by: |
genetics sex - influenced |
|
male pattern baldness is called by follicular response to _____ |
DHT (dihydrotestosterone) |
|
minoxidil and finasteride are treatments for ______ |
baldness |
|
sweat glands or _______ |
sudoriferous |
|
we have approx _______ sudoriferous glands |
3 million |
|
two types of sweat glands |
eccrine apocrine |
|
sweat glands contain _______ cells that contract upon nervous system to force sweat into ducts |
myoepithelial |
|
_______ sweat glands are abundance on palms, soles, and forehead |
eccrine |
|
_______ ducts connect to pores |
eccrine sweat glands |
|
eccrine sweat glands function in _____ |
thermoregulation |
|
eccrine sweat glands are regulated by ______ system |
sympathetic nervous |
|
sweat is composed of: |
99% water salts vit C antibodies metabolic wastes |
|
apocrine sweat glands are confined to _____ and _____ areas |
axillary anogenital |
|
apocrine sweat is made up of ______ + _____ + ______ |
sweat, fatty substances, proteins |
|
_______ sweat is milky or yellowish |
apocrine |
|
________ sweat glands ducts empty into hair follicles |
apocrine |
|
________ sweat glands begin functioning at puberty |
apocrine |
|
types of modified apocrine sweat glands |
ceruminous mammary |
|
________ glands are the lining of the external ear canal and secrete ______ |
cerumen |
|
cerumen = ____ |
ear wax |
|
mammary glands secrete ____ |
milk |
|
______ glands secrete into hair follicles and are inactive until puberty |
sebaceous glands |
|
sebaceous glands secrete ______ |
sebum |
|
oil glands are stimulated by ______ especially ____ |
hormones androgens |
|
______ is a oily holocrine secretion |
sebum |
|
fxn of sebum |
bactericidal softens hair and skin |
|
three types of protection barriers |
chemical physical biological |
|
what are the chemical barriers |
skin secretions melanin |
|
how are skin secretions chemical barriers |
slows bacterial multiplication sebum and defensins kill bacteria |
|
what are the physical barriers of the skin |
flat, dead cells of the s corneum keratin and glycolipids |
|
what are the biological barriers |
dendritic cells of epidermis macrophages of dermis DNA |
|
______ and ______ present foreign antigens to WBCs |
dendritic cells macrophages |
|
_________ electrons absorb UV radiation and converts it to heat |
DNA |
|
if body temp is normal, the routine is known as _________ |
insensible perspiration |
|
if body temp rises, body routine switches to ______ |
sensible perspiration |
|
what happens in sensible perspiration |
dilation of dermal vessels increased sweat gland activity |
|
what happens in cold external environment |
dermal blood vessels constrict skin temp drops to slow passive heat loss |
|
____________ sensory receptors detect temperature, touch, and pain |
cutaneous |
|
metabolic fxns of integumentary system |
synthesis of vitamin D and collagenase chemical conversions of carcinogens activate hormones |
|
skin holds up to _____% of bodys blood volume |
5 |
|
integumentary system in excretion |
nitrogenous wastes and salts in sweat |
|
most skin tumors are ________ and do not _______ |
benign metastasize |
|
risk factors of skin cancer |
overexposure to UV radiation frequent irritation of skin |
|
three major types of skin cancer |
basal cell carcinoma squamous cell carcinoma melanoma |
|
most common, least malignant skin cancer |
basal cell carcinoma |
|
squamous cell carcinoma involves _______ of s. spinosum |
keratinocytes |
|
squamous cell carcinoma are usually scaly, reddened papules on: |
scalp, ears, lower lip and hands |
|
________ = cancer of melanocytes |
melanoma |
|
_______ = most dangerous skin cancer and usually metastatic |
melanoma |
|
ABCD rule of detection of melanoma |
Asymmetry Border irregularity Color Diameter |
|
what do burns do in the skin |
denature proteins kills cells |
|
immediate threat of burns |
dehydration and electrolyte imbalance |
|
what does dehydration and electrolyte imbalance lead to |
renal shutdown and circulatory shock |
|
how are burns evaluated |
rule of nines
|
|
________ estimate volume of fluid loss following a burn |
rule of nines |
|
partial thickness burns are which degree |
first and second |
|
______ degree burns are epidermal damage only |
first |
|
_______ degree burns are epidermal and upper dermal damage - blisters appear |
second |
|
full thickness burns are ______ degree |
third |
|
______ degree burns, the entire thickness of skin is involved |
third |
|
______ degree: skin grey-white, not painful or swollen |
third degree |
|
treatment of critical burns |
debridement antibiotics temporary covering skin grafts
|
|
________ = removal of burned skin |
debridement |
|
burns are critical if: |
more than 25% of body has 2nd degree more than 10% has third degree face, hands, or feet bear third degree |
|
ectoderm = _______ |
epidermis |
|
mesoderm = |
dermis + hypodermis |
|
__________ = delicate hair in the 5th and 6th fetal month |
lanugo coat |
|
vernix caseosa protects _______ |
skin of fetus |
|
vernix caseosa is a __________ secretion |
sebaceous gland |
|
aging skin becomes ___, ____, and ____ |
thin dry itchy |
|
aging: subcutaneous fat and elasticity decrease leads to: |
cold intolerance wrinkes |
|
aging skin: increased risk of cancer due to decreased numbers of ____ and ___ |
melanocytes dendritic cells |
|
to delay aging skin |
UV protection good nutrition lots of fluids good hygiene |
|
_______ contains no blood vessels or nerves |
cartilage |
|
_______ surrounds skeletal cartilage - known as a dense connective tissue girdle |
perichondrium |
|
the perichondrium contains _____________ for nutrient delivery |
blood vessels |
|
all skeletal cartilages contain _______ and ________ |
chondrocytes extracellular matrix |
|
three types of skeletal cartilage |
hyaline elastic fibrocartilage |
|
______ cartilage contains ONLY collagen fibers |
hyaline |
|
_______ cartilage contains elastic fibers |
elastic |
|
_______ cartilage is seen in the external ear and epiglottis |
elastic |
|
_______ cartilage is seen in the respiratory tract and nasal cavity |
hyaline |
|
________ is made up of thick collagen fibers and has great tensile strength |
fibrocartilage |
|
_________ make up the menisci of the knee and vertebral discs |
fibrocartilage |
|
areas of hyaline cartilage |
nose ribs elbow wrist hips ankles trachea |
|
areas of elastic cartilage |
ear and epiglottis |
|
areas of fibrocartilage |
pubic symphysis menisci intervertebral discs |
|
________ growth = cells secrete matrix against external face of existing cartilage |
appositional |
|
_______ growth = chondrocytes divide and secrete new matrix, expanding cartilage from within |
interstitial |
|
_______ of cartilage occurs during normal bone growth, hardening of cartilage |
calcification |
|
ages that calcification of cartilage happens |
youth old age |
|
_______ named bones in skeleton |
206 |
|
the skeleton is divided into two groups ______ and _____ |
axial and appendicular |
|
what makes up the axial skeleton |
skull vertebral column rib cage |
|
what makes up the appendicular skeleton |
bones of upper and lower limbs |
|
bones by shape (4) |
long short flat irregular |
|
name the long bones |
limb wrist ankle |
|
________ bones are longer than they are wide |
long |
|
________ bones are cube shaped bones |
short |
|
cube shaped bones are found in the ______ and ______ |
wrist and ankle |
|
________ bones are found within tendons |
sesamoid |
|
example of a sesamoid bone |
patella |
|
_______ bones vary in size and number in different individuals |
short |
|
flat bones are found in the: |
sternum scapulae ribs most skull bones |
|
_______ bones are found in the vertebrae and coxal bones |
irregular |
|
seven important fxns of bones |
support protection movement mineral and growth factor storage blood cell formation triglyceride storage hormone production |
|
what minerals are made in the bone |
calcium and phosphorus |
|
________ = blood cell formation |
hematopoiesis |
|
blood cell formation happens in _________ cavities of certain bones |
red marrow |
|
hormone produced in bone |
osteocalcin |
|
osteocalcin protects against: |
obesity glucose intolerance diabetes |
|
bones are ________ that contain different types of tissues |
organs |
|
three levels of bone structure |
gross anatomy microscopic chemical |
|
name the bone textures |
compact spongy |
|
compact bone characteristics |
dense outer layer smooth and solid |
|
types of spongy bone |
cancellous or trabecular |
|
honeycomb of flat pieces of bone deep to compact bone are called _____ |
trabeculae |
|
thin plates of spongy bone are covered by ___ |
compact bone |
|
plates of spongy bone are sandwiched between two connective tissue membranes _____ and ____ |
periosteum and endosteum |
|
bone marrow is seen throughout _____ bone |
spongy |
|
hyaline cartilage covers ______ surfaces |
articular |
|
structure of long bone contains _____ and ______ |
disphysis and epiphyses |
|
_______ = a tubular shaft that forms long axis of long bones |
diaphysis |
|
diaphysis is a compact bone that surrounds the ______ cavity |
medullary |
|
epiphyses are seen at bone _____ |
ends |
|
________ cartilage coveres epiphyses |
articular |
|
between epiphyses are _______ lines |
epiphyseal |
|
remnant of childhood bone growth is seen at the _______ |
epiphyseal plate |
|
white, double-layered membrane that covers external surfaces |
periosteum |
|
periosteum makes up the outer ________ layer of dense irregular connective tissue |
fibrous |
|
________ fibers secure to bone matrix |
sharpey's |
|
_________ layer is adjacent bone |
osteogenic |
|
periosteum contains primitive cells called ______ |
osteogenic cells |
|
_______ is used as an anchoring point for tendons and ligaments |
periosteum |
|
________ = delicate connective tissue membrane covering internal bone surface |
endosteum |
|
endosteum covers the ______ of spongy bone |
trabeculae |
|
________ lines canals that pass through compact bone |
endosteum |
|
________ is found within trabecular cavities of spongy bone |
red marrow |
|
red marrow is fond within the _______ of flat bones |
diploe |
|
_______ is found in the spongy bones of newborns |
red marrow |
|
long bones contain small amounts of marrow in the: |
heads of femur and humerus |
|
red marrow is most active in _____ and _____ bones |
diploe and irregular |
|
_______ marrow can convert to ____ marrow |
yellow; red |
|
bone markings can be seen in sites of ____, ______, and ______ attachment |
muscle, ligament, and tendon |
|
bone markings are conduits for _____ and ______ |
blood vessels and nerves |
|
types of bone markings |
projections depressions openings |
|
________ = bone marking that indicates stresses caused by muscle pull or joint modifications |
projections |
|
_______ = large rounded projection that may be roughened |
tuberosity |
|
_______ = narrow ridge of bone, usually prominent |
crest |
|
______ = very large, blunt, irregularly shaped process |
trochanter |
|
ex. of a trochanter |
femur |
|
______ = narrow ridge of bone, less prominent than a crest |
line |
|
________ = small rounded projection or process |
tubercle |
|
_______ = raised area on or above a condyle |
epicondyle |
|
_______ = sharp, slender often pointed projection |
spine |
|
________ = any bone prominence |
process |
|
bone expansion carried on a narrow neck |
head |
|
smooth, nearly flat articular surface |
facet |
|
rounded articular projection |
condyle |
|
armlike bar of bone |
ramus |
|
________ = furrow |
groove |
|
________ = narrow, slitlike opening |
fissure |
|
______ = round or oval opening through a bone |
foramen |
|
_______ = indentation at the edge of a structure |
notch |
|
_______ = canal like passageway |
meatus |
|
______ = cavity within a bone filled with air and lined with mucous membrane |
sinus |
|
shallow, basinlike depression in a bone often serving as an articular surface |
fossa |
|
five major cell types of bone |
osteogenic cells osteoblasts osteocytes bone lining cells osteroclasts |
|
osteogenic cells are also called ________ |
osteoprogenitor cells |
|
__________ = mitotically active stem cells in the periosteum and endosteum |
osteogenic |
|
when osteogenic cells are stimulated, they differentiate into ________ or _____ |
osteoblasts or bone lining cells |
|
_______ are known as bone-forming cells |
osteoblasts |
|
osteoblasts secrete _______ |
osteoids |
|
_______ = unmineralized bone matrix |
osteoid |
|
_______ makes up 90% of bone protein |
collagen |
|
osteoid includes collagen and ______ |
calcium-binding proteins |
|
______ = mature bone cells in lacunae |
osteocytes |
|
_________ monitor and maintain bone matrix, and act as stress sensors |
osteocytes |
|
osteocytes respond to and communicate mechanial stimuli to ______ and _____ so bone remodeling can occur |
osteoblasts osteoclasts |
|
_______ = cells that destroy bone |
osteoclasts |
|
______ = flat cells on bone surfaces believed to help maintain matrix |
bone lining cells |
|
bone lining cells on external bone is called ________ |
periosteal cells |
|
bone lining cells on the internal surfaces are called _______ |
endosteal cells |
|
-------- are derived from hematopoietic stem cells that become macrophages |
osteoclasts |
|
______ = giant, multinucleate cells for bone resorption |
osteoclasts |
|
when osteoclasts are active, they rest in ______ and have a ruffled border |
resorption bay |
|
ruffled border of osteoclasts fxns: |
increases surface area for enzyme degradation of bone seals off area from surrounding matrix |
|
compact bone also called ______ |
lamellar bone |
|
________ = structural unit of compact bone |
osteon |
|
hollow tubes of bone matrix = |
lamellae |
|
osteon is also known as _____ |
haversian system |
|
________ = elongated cylinder parallel to long axis of bone |
osteon |
|
________ bone contains canals and canaliculi |
compact |
|
___________ runs through core of osteon |
central canal |
|
central canal also known as _______ |
haversian |
|
perforating canal is also known as ______ |
volkmann |
|
___________ = canals lined with endoseum at right angles to central canal |
perforating canal |
|
_______ connect blood vessels and nerves of periosteum, medulalry cavity, and central canal |
perforating canals |
|
________ = small cavities that contain osteocytes |
lacunae |
|
_______ = hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and central canal |
canaliculi |
|
_______ form when matrix hardens and cells are trapped |
canaliculi |
|
fxn of canaliculi |
allows communication permits nutrients and wastes to be relayed from one osteocyte to another throughout osteon |
|
_________ lamellae = incomplete, not part of complete osteon |
interstitial |
|
fxn of interstitial lamellae |
fill gaps between forming osteons remnants of osteons cut by bone remodeling |
|
__________ lamellae extend around surface of diaphyis, resist twisting of long bone |
circumferential |
|
characteristics of spongy bone |
align along lines of stress to resist no osteons trabeculae
|
|
_______ = 1/3 of bone matrix secreted by osteoblasts |
osteoid |
|
resilience of bone is due to __________ in or between the collagen molecules |
sacrificial bonds |
|
_________ stretch and break easily on impact to dissipate energy and prevent fracture of bones |
sacrifical bones |
|
hydroxyapatites = _________ of bones |
mineral salts |
|
HYDROXYAPATITES = tiny __________ crystals in and around collagen fibers |
calcium phosphate |
|
chemical in bone responsible for hardness and resistance to compression |
hydroxyapatites |
|
bone can display _________ = lines in bones that are a proof of illness when bones stop growing so nutrients can prevent disease |
growth arrest lines |
|
_________ or osteogeneisis |
ossification |
|
_______ = process of bone tissue formation |
ossification |
|
________ = formation of bony skeleton |
ossification |
|
ossification begins in the _______ of development |
2nd month |
|
postnatal bone growth lasts until |
early adulthood |
|
two types of ossification |
endochondral intramembranous |
|
_______ ossification = bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage |
endochondral |
|
bones formed by endochondral ossification are called _______ |
cartilage bones |
|
________ ossification = bone develops from fibrous membrane |
intramembranous |
|
bones formed by intramembranous ossification are called _______ bones |
membrane |
|
intramembranous ossification forms flat bones such as: |
clavicles and cranial bones |
|
endochrondral ossification beings at _________ in center of shaft |
primary ossification center |
|
explain endochondral ossification |
bone collar forms around diaphysis of cartilage central cartilage calcifies and develops cavities periosteal bud invades those cavities leads to formation of spongy bone diaphysis elongates and medullary cavity forms epiphyses ossify |
|
intramembranous ossification location |
frontal parietal occipital temporal clavicles |
|
explain intramembranous ossification |
fibrous connective tissue membranes formed by mesenchymal cells ossification centers appear osteoid is secreted woven bone and periosteum form lamellar bone replaces woven bone and red marrow appears |
|
fibrous connective tissue membranes are formed by ______ cells |
mesenchymal |
|
______ growth = increase in length of long bones |
interstitial |
|
______ growth = increase in bone thickness |
appositional |
|
five zones caused by interstital growth |
resting proliferation hypertrophic calcification ossification |
|
interstitial growth requires presence of _______ cartilage |
epiphyseal |
|
what happens in resting zone |
cartilage on epiphseal side of epiphyseal plate, inactive |
|
what happens in proliferation zone |
cartilage on diaphysis side of epiphyseal plate is rapidly dividing and pushing epihysis away from diaphysis = lengthening |
|
what is the hypertrophic zone |
older chondrocytes closer to diaphysis and their lacunae enlarge and erode creating interconnecting spaces |
|
what happens in calcification zone |
surrounding cartilage matrix calcifies, chondrocytes die and deteriorate |
|
what happens in ossification zone |
chondrocyte deterioration leaves long spicules of calficied cartilage that are erroded by osteoclases then covered with new bone by osteoclasts ultimately replaced with spongy bone |
|
___________ = term for bone lengthening ceasing |
epiphyseal plate closure |
|
age for females/males of epiphyseal plate closure |
females - 18 males 21 |
|
what fuses during epiphyseal plate closure |
bone of epiphysis and diaphysis |
|
explain appositional growth |
osteoblasts beneath periosteum secrete bone matrix on external bone osteoclasts remove bone on endosteal surfaec *occurs throughout life |
|
________ hormone = stimulates epiphyseal plate activity in infancy and childhood |
growth |
|
________ hormone - modulates activity of growth hormone, ensures proper proportions |
thyroid |
|
______ and _______ promote growth spurts and end growth by inducing epiphyseal plate closure |
testosterone estrogen |
|
we recycle 5-7% of bone each _____ |
week |
|
spongy bone is replaced every ___ years |
3-4 |
|
compact bone is replaced every _____ years |
10 |
|
older bones become more brittle due to: |
calcium salts crystalizing |
|
bone homeostasis consists of _______ and _____ |
bone remodeling and repair |
|
bone remodeling consists of ___ and ____ |
bone deposit and resorption |
|
bone remodeling occurs at both __ and ___ |
periosteum and endosteum |
|
what are the remodeling units of bone |
adjacent osteoblasts and osteoclasts |
|
_______ are in charge of bone resorption |
osteoclasts |
|
function of osteoclasts |
dig depreassions or grooves to break down matrix secrete lysosomal enzymes that digest matrix and protons acidity converts calcium salts to soluble forms |
|
_________ phagocytize demineralized matrix and dead osteocytes |
osteoclasts |
|
_______ allows osteoclasts to release into interstitial fluid and then into blood |
transcytosis |
|
once resorption is complete, osteoclasts undergo _____ |
apoptosis |
|
osteoclast activation involves ____ and _____ secreted proteins |
PTH and T cell |
|
bone remodeling is regulated by: |
negative feedback hormonal loop for calcium homeostasis responses to mechanical and gravitational forces |
|
calcium fxns in: |
nerve impulse transmission muscle contraction blood coagulation secretion by glands and nerve cells cell division |
|
99% of calcium in the body is used as _______ |
bone minerals |
|
intestinal absorption of calcium requires ______ metabolites |
vitamin D |
|
_________ hormone produced by the parathyroid glands that removes calcium from the bone |
parathyroid |
|
_________ hormone in the blood that lowers blood calcium levels temporarily |
calcitonin |
|
explain the Calcium feeback loop |
blood calcium levels down, PTH release, stimulates osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix that releases calcium, blood calcium levels rise, PTH release ends |
|
neuromuscular problems when calcium levels are too high/too low |
too low - hyperexcitability too high - nonresponsiveness |
|
_________ = sustained high blood calcium levels |
hypercalcemia |
|
what happens during hypercalcemia |
deposits of calcium salts in blood vessels, interfere with kidney function |
|
_______ = hormone released by adipose tissue - role in bone density regulation |
leptin |
|
_______ inhibits osteoblasts in animals |
leptin |
|
_______ = neurotransmitter regulating mood and sleep |
serotonin |
|
serotonin is mostly made in the ______ and then secreted into ____ after eating |
gut blood |
|
serotonin interferes with ____ activity |
osteoblast |
|
serotonin reuptake inhibitors cause: |
lower bone density |
|
ex. of serotonin reuptake inhibitor |
prozac |
|
__________ = bones grow or remodel in response to demands placed on it |
Wolff's Law |
|
______ controls determine whether and when remodling occurs to changing blood calcium levels |
hormonal |
|
_________ determines where remodeling occurs |
mechanical stress |
|
bone fractures are most seen in _____ and ____ (age) |
youth - trauma old age - weakness from bone thinning |
|
fracture classifications depend on: |
position of bone ends after fracture completeness of break whether skin is penetrated |
|
position of bone ends after fracture is either ____ and _____ |
nondisplaced - normal position displaced - out of normal alignment |
|
completeness of break is either ____ or ____ |
complete - broken all the way through incomplete - not broken all the way through |
|
fracture in which the skin is penetrated or not is known as ____ or ___ |
open (compound) - skin is penetrated closed (simple) - skin not penetrated |
|
________ = bone fragments into three or more pieces |
comminuted |
|
________ fracture where bone is crushed |
compression |
|
______ = fracture where ragged break occurs when excessive twisting forces are applied to a bone |
spiral |
|
________ fracture = common sports fracture |
spiral |
|
_________ fracture = when epiphysis separates from the diaphysis along the epiphyseal plate |
epiphyseal |
|
_______ fracture = when broken bone is pressed inward |
depressed |
|
depressed fractures are common in which bone |
depressed |
|
_______ fracture = bone breaks incompletely - one side breaks, other side bends |
greenstick |
|
treatments of fracture repair |
reduction immobilization |
|
_______ reduction = physician manipulates to correct position |
closed |
|
______ reduction = surgical pins or wires secure ends |
open |
|
________ = by cast or traction for healing |
immobilization |
|
stages of bone repair when a hematoma forms |
torn blood vessels hemorrhage clot forms site = swollen, painful, and inflamed |
|
explain fibrocartilagenous callus formation |
capillaries grow into hematoma phagocytic cells clear debris fibroblasts sercrete collagen fibers to connect broken ends fibroblasts, cartilage, and osteogenic cells begin reconstruction of bone |
|
name the stages of bone repair |
1. hematoma forms 2. fibrocartilaginous callus forms 3. bony callus forms 4. bone remodeling occurs |
|
explain the stage of bone repair where bony callus forms |
within 1 week, new trabeculae appear in fibrocartilaginous callus callus converted to bony callus of spongy bone ~2 months later firm union forms |
|
________ = condition where bones are poorly mineralized and calcium salts are not adequate |
osteomalacia |
|
_______ = osteomalacia of children |
rickets |
|
______ causes bowed legs and bone deformities |
rickets |
|
rickets is caused by ______ deficiency or insufficient dietary calcium |
vitamin D |
|
_________ = bone resorption outpaces deposit |
osteoporosis |
|
_____ and ____ is most susceptible to osteoporosis |
spongy bone of spine and neck of femur |
|
risk factors for osteoporosis |
petite body form insufficient exercise diet poor in calcium or protein smoking hormone - hyperthyroidism, diabetes immobility |
|
traditional treatments for treating osteoporosis |
calcium vitamin D supplements weight bearing exercises hormone replacement therapy |
|
_________ = decrease osteoclast activity |
bisphosphonates |
|
new drugs for osteoporosis treatment |
bisphosphonates selective estrogen receptor modulators statins denosumab |
|
______ = mimic estrogen without targeting breast and uterus |
selective estrogen receptor modulators |
|
_______ = used for lowering cholesterol but also increase bone mineral density |
statins |
|
________ = monoclonal antibody that reduces fractures in men with prostate cancer |
denosumab |
|
prevent osteoporosis by: |
plenty of calcium in early adulthood reduce carbonated beverage and alcohol consumption plenty of weight bearing exercise |
|
__________ = disease where excessive and haphazard bone deposit and resorption happen |
pagets |
|
__________ causes very high ratio of spongy to compact bone and reduced mineralization |
pagets disease |
|
______ bone = bone made fast and poorly |
pagetic |
|
treatment for pagets diease |
calcitonin and biphosphonates |
|
most long bones ossify by ___ weeks |
8 |
|
at age ____ all bones are completely ossified and skeletal growth ceases |
25 |
|
in children and adolescents: bone formation exceeds bone ____ |
resorption |
|
bone mass, mineralization and healing ability decrease with age beginning by age _____ |
40 |
|
bone loss is greater in: |
white females |