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426 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What is bone?
|
a living, dynamic tissue which responds to its environmnt
|
|
How does bone react to the amount of force applied?
|
by:
- increasing density & amount of roughening on bone - decreasing density when force is reduced |
|
What is deposition?
|
occurs when bone is injured or added strength is required
|
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When does optimal deposition occur?
|
when healthy diet rich in proteins, vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin D, and several minerals
|
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What is resorption?
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digestion of bone marrow
|
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How is resorption accomplished?
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by osteoclasts
|
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What are the functions of bone?
|
- support
- protection - movement - mineral storage - blood cell formation - fat storage |
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How do bones provide support?
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provide framework to support body and cradle soft organs
|
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How do bones provide protection?
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- skull protects brain
- vertebrae surround spinal cord - rib cage protects vital organs of thorax |
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How do bones assist with movement?
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skeletal muscle attach to bones by tendons and use them as levers to move the body
|
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How do bones assist in mineral storage?
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bones act as reservoir for minerals which are released into the blood stream as needed
|
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What minerals are most common in bones?
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- calcium
- phosphate |
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Where does blood cell formation occur?
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occurs in the marrow cavities of certain bones
|
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What is the role of bones in fat storage?
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fat is stored in bone cavities
|
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What does the fat stored in bones represent?
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stored energy for the body
|
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What are the features between dense CT and bone?
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- tough, but flexible
- avascular - devoid of nerve fibres - ground substance contains lots of the GAGs chondroitin sulfate & hyaluronic acid - collagen fibres - up to 80% H2O |
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What can periochondrium for in damaged areas?
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can form scar tissue
|
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Why does the perichondrium form scar tissue in damaged areas?
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because vascularized cartilage repairs badly
|
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What occurs to cartilage with aging?
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ossification
|
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What are chondroblasts?
|
immature cartilage cells that actively for cartilage
|
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What type of MR do chondroblasts have?
|
high MR
|
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What are chondrocytes?
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mature cartilage cells that maintain cartilage
|
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What type of MR do chondrocytes have?
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low MR
|
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What are lacunae?
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localized clusters of chondrocytes in cartilage
|
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What are the types of cartilage?
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- hyaline
- elastic - fibrocartilage |
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Which type of cartilage is most abundant?
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hyaline
|
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How does hyaline cartilage appear?
|
glassy blue-white
|
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What are the characteristics of hyaline cartilage?
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- firm support + pliability
- lots of fine collagen - chondrocytes - only 1-10% of volume |
|
Where is hyaline cartilage located?
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- embryonic skeleton
- ends of long bones - costal cartilages of ribs - cartilages of nose - trachea - larynx |
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What is the function of hyaline cartilage?
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- supports & reinforces
- resilient cushioning - resists compressive stress |
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What is contained in hyaline cartilage?
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- articular cartilages
- costal cartilage - respiratory cartilage - nasal cartilage |
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What is articular cartilage?
|
cover ends of most bones at movable joints
|
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What is costal cartilage?
|
connect ribs to sternum
|
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What is respiratory cartilage?
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form skeleton of larynx and reinforce respiratory passages
|
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What is nasal cartilages?
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support external nose
|
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What is the difference between elastic cartilage and hyaline cartilage?
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elastic cartilage has more elastic fibres than hyaline
|
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Where is elastic cartilage located?
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external ear, epiglottis
|
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What is the function of elastic cartilage?
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maintains shape while giving flexibility
|
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What are the characteristics of fibrocartilage?
|
- rows of chondrocytes alternating with rows of thick collagen fibers
- structural intermediate between hyaline cartilage and dense regular CT |
|
Where is fibrocartilage located?
|
- intervertebral discs
- pubic symphysis - discs of knee joints |
|
What is the function of fibrocartilage?
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tensile strength with ability to absorb compressive shock
|
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What gives bones hardness and strength?
|
calcium salts
|
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What does the strength & hardness of bones do?
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provide support & protection of softer tissues
|
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What do bones provide?
|
cavities for fat storage & synthesis of blood cells
|
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What is an osteoblast?
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bone-forming cell
|
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What is an osteocyte?
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mature bone cell
|
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What is an osteoclast?
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large cell that resorbs or breaks down bone matrix
|
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What are the bone types?
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- compact
- spongy |
|
What is compact bone?
|
dense, outer layer
|
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What is spongy bone?
|
trabeculae (red marrow found in spongy bone)
|
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What types of cells make up the linings of bones?
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"blasts and clasts"
|
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What are the types of linings in bones?
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- periosteum
- endosteum |
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What is periosteum?
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outer fibrous layer + inner osteogenic layer
|
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What is the role of endosteum?
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cover trabeculae of psongy bone & lines canals of compact bone
|
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What is the role of shape in bones?
|
unique shape allows each bone to fulfill a particular need
|
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What is the shape of the femur?
|
hollow cylindrical shape
|
|
What is the significance of the femur's shape?
|
provides maximum strength with minimum weight
|
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What are the different classifications of bone shape?
|
- long
- flat - short - irregular |
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What are the two basic structures of bones?
|
- compact bone
- spongy bone |
|
What is the role of compact bone?
|
provides external surface
|
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What is spongy bone?
|
honeycomb of trabeculae
|
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What are the characteristics of long bones?
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- much longer than wide
- shaft + 2 ends - mostly compact bone with marrow cavity - spongy bone near joint ends |
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What is the shape of short bone?
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roughly cube-shaped
|
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What are the characteristics of short bone?
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primarily spongy bone + thin outer layer of compact bone
|
|
What are examples of short bones?
|
- wrist
- ankle - sesamoid bones |
|
What are the characteristics of flat bones?
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thin, flattened & sometimes curved
|
|
What are examples of flat bones?
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- skull bones
- ribs - breastbone |
|
What type of shape do irregular bones have?
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complicated shapes
|
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What are the characteristics of irregular bones?
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spongy bone + thin covering of compact bone
|
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What are examples of irregular bones?
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- leftovers
- vertebrae & hips |
|
What are the element of the microscopic structure of bones?
|
- diaphysis
- epiphysis - epiphyseal lines |
|
What is the diaphysis?
|
- tubular axis of a long bone / long axis of bone
- collar of compact bone surrounding marrow cavity |
|
What is another name for marrow cavity?
|
medullary cavity
|
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What does the medullary cavity contain?
|
yellow marrow or yellow bone marrow cavity
|
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What is an epiphysis?
|
extremities of long bone
|
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Why is the epiphysis expanded?
|
for articulation with other bones
|
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What forms the outer layer of the epiphysis?
|
- compact bone
|
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What is the interior of the epiphysis filled with?
|
spongy bone
|
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What is the role of the epiphysis?
|
to provide thin layer of hyaline cartilage to cushion opposing bone ends during movement & absorb stress
|
|
Where is the epiphyseal line located?
|
between the diaphysis & each epiphysis
|
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What is the epiphyseal line a remnant of?
|
epiphyseal plate
|
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What do membranes cover in bone?
|
outer & inner surfaces of long bones
|
|
What do membranes of bones contain?
|
osteoblasts and osteoclasts
|
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What are bone membranes also part of?
|
a delicate layer of CT
|
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What is the structure of other bone types?
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- compact bone outside
- spongy bone inside - not cylindrical - no shaft, marrow cavity, or epiphyses - bone marrow between trabeculae |
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What is compact bone covered with?
|
periosteum
|
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What is spongy bone lined with?
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endosteum
|
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What is the osteon (Haversian) system?
|
structural unit of compact bone
|
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What is an osteon?
|
an elongated cylinder oriented parallel to the long axis of bone
|
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What is the best way to think of osteons?
|
- as tiny, weight-bearing pillars
- groups of hollow tubes of bone matrix |
|
What is each matrix tube of the osteon called?
|
lamellar bone
|
|
What are the elements of the microscopic structure of spongy bone?
|
- trabeculae
- lamellae - osteocytes - canaliculi |
|
How are trabeculae arranged in spongy bone?
|
along lines of stress
|
|
What is the role of trabeculae in spongy bone?
|
help bone resist stress
|
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How thick is the trabeculae in spongy bone?
|
only a few cell layers thick
|
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How are the lamellated osteocytes arranged in spongy bone?
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irregularly
|
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How are the lamellated osteocytes connected in spongy bones?
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interconnected by canaliculi
|
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Are osteons present in spongy bone?
|
no
|
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How do nutrients diffuse through spongy bone?
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through canaliculi from marrow spaces between the trabeculae to reach osteocytes
|
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What are the types of ossification?
|
- intramembranous
- endochondral |
|
How do bones develeop in intramembranous ossification?
|
develop from fibrous CT membrane containing mesenchymal cells
|
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When does intramembranous ossification begin?
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at about 8 weeks of embryonic development
|
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How do bones develop in endochondral ossification?
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via the replacement of a hyaline cartilage model
|
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What bones use endochondral ossification?
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all bones below the skull (except the clavicles)
|
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When does endochondral ossification begin?
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in second month of development
|
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Why is endochondral ossification more complex?
|
because hyaline cartilage must be broken down as ossification proceeds
|
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How does hyaline cartilage remain after secondary ossification is complete?
|
- on epiphyseal surfaces s articular cartilages
- at junctions of diaphysis and epiphysis where they form epiphyseal plates - where long bones continue to grow |
|
What are the mechanisms of bone growth during infancy & youth?
|
bones lengthen entirely by interstitial growth of epiphyseal plates
- all bones growth in thickness by appositional growth |
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What are the mechanisms of bone growth adolescence and early adulthood?
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most bones stop growing
|
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Which bones continue to grow throughout life?
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some facial bones (nose & lower jaw)
|
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What is the growth zone?
|
where cartilage cells undergo mitosis
|
|
What happens in the transformation zone?
|
- older cells enlarge
- matrix becomes calcified - cartilage cells die - matrix begins deteriorating |
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What happens in the osteogenic zone?
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new bone formation is occurring
|
|
What is remodeling?
|
as the bone lengthens, the shape of the ends must be altered
|
|
What occurs during remodeling?
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- length increase
- external suface ends are made slimmer - internal surface thickened - bone destroyed by osteoclasts and laid down by osteoblasts on inner and outer surfaces of growing long bone |
|
What is the role of the epiphyseal plate in remodeling?
|
- stays about the same size throughout childhood and adolescence
- becomes thinner as cartilage cells in zone 1 multiply more and more slowly |
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Why does the epiphyseal plate stay about the same size in childhood and adolescence?
|
because the rates of bone deposit and resorption are equal
|
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What is epiphyseal plate closure?
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end of longitudinal growth when epiphysis & diaphysis fuses
|
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What is appositional growth?
|
bone growth in width
|
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How does appositional growth occur?
|
- layers on bone laid down on top of each other
- osteoblasts on periosteal side secrete bone matrix - osteoclasts on endosteal side remove bone matix |
|
How do bone growth in width and bone growth and length occur in relation to each other?
|
at the same time
|
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When does osteoporosis occur?
|
when bone resorption outpaces bone formation causing bone to become porous
|
|
What areas of the spine are especially vulnerable to osteoporosis?
|
- spine
- neck of femur |
|
What are the risk factors for osteoporosis?
|
- age
- estrogen & testosterone - insufficient exercise - diet poor in calcium & protein - abnormal vitamin D receptors - smoking |
|
Why do estrogen and testerone increase the risk of osteoporosis?
|
promote bone health by restraining osteoclast activity and promoting deposition of new bone
|
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What is the Haversian canal?
|
osteon canal
|
|
What is volkmann's canal?
|
canals that run at right angles to long axis of bone, connecting vascular and nerve supply of periosteum to central canals and medullary cavity
|
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What are interstitial lamella?
|
incomplete lamellae that lie between intact osteons filling gaps between forming osteons or representing remnants of an osteon that has been cut through by remodeling
|
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What are circumferential lamella?
|
located deep to periosteum and superficial to endosteum
|
|
What are the role of circumferential lamella?
|
resist twisting of long bone
|
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What are the canaliculi?
|
hair-like canals that connect lacunae to each each & to the central canal
|
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Where is red marrow typically found?
|
within trabecular cavities of spongy bone in long bones & in diploe of flat bones
|
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Where is yellow marrow typically found?
|
in medullary cavity
|
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How many bones of in the human skeleton?
|
206
|
|
What percentage of the body weight do bones make up?
|
20%
|
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What are the groups of the skeleton?
|
- axial skeleton
- appendicular skeleton |
|
What makes up the axial skeleton?
|
bones of skull, vertebral column, rib cage
|
|
What makes up the appendicular skeleton?
|
- bones of upper & lower limbs
- pectoral/pelvic girdle |
|
How many bones are in the axial skeleton?
|
80
|
|
How many bones are in the skull?
|
22
|
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What has the most complex bone structure?
|
skull
|
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What are the sets of bones in the skull?
|
- cranial
- facial |
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What bones make up the cranial bone set?
|
- ethmoid
- frontal - occipital - parietal - temporal - sphenoid |
|
What does the ethmoid bone approximate?
|
a cube that lies deep between orbits & nasal cavities
|
|
What do the cribiriform plates of the ethmoid bone form?
|
roof of nasal cavity & floor of anterior cranial fossa
|
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What is the role of the olfactory foramina in the ethmoid bone?
|
transmit olfactory nerves
|
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What are the role of the crista galli in the ethmoid bone?
|
project superiorly to attach to dura matter of brain
|
|
Where are the ethmoid sinuses contained?
|
within lateral masses in the ethnoid bone
|
|
Where are the superior & middle nasal conchae located?
|
medially to the ethmoid bone
|
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Where are the orbital plates located?
|
lateral to the ethmoid bone
|
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What is the role of the orbital plates?
|
contribute to medial walls of orbits
|
|
What is the shape of the frontal bone?
|
dome-shaped
|
|
What is the role of the frontal bone?
|
- forms roof of orbits & anterior cranial fossa
- articulates with paired parietal bones |
|
Where is the frontal sinus located?
|
in the area lateral to the glabella
|
|
Where is the occipital bone located?
|
at base of skull
|
|
What is the role of the occipital bone?
|
- helps form post aspect of skull
- forms walls of post cranial fossa - articulates anteriorly to 2 parietal & temporal bones - attaches to sphenoid |
|
What are the foramen magnum?
|
large hole are base of occipital bone that allows passage of spinal cord
|
|
Where are the occipital condyles located?
|
on side of foramen magnum
|
|
What is the role of the occipital condyle?
|
site of articulation with first cervical vertebra
|
|
What is the external occipital protuberance?
|
projection at back of skull
|
|
What does the parietal bone form?
|
- form superior & lateral aspects of skull
- form bulk of cranial vault |
|
What is the role of the sphenoid bone?
|
- articulates with all other cranial bones
- form base of middle cranial fossa - contributes to base of anterior cranial fossa - contains sphenoid sinuses |
|
What are the projections of the sphenoid bone?
|
- greater wings
- lesser wings - pteyhoid processes |
|
What are the pterygoud processes used for?
|
muscles for chewing
|
|
What are the optic formina used for?
|
optic nerves
|
|
Where is the superior orbital fissure located?
|
between greater & lesser wings
|
|
What is the superior orbital fissure used for?
|
cranial nerves for eye movement
|
|
What type of bones are the temporal bones?
|
paired
|
|
What do the temporal bones form?
|
- interior & lateral aspects of skull
- parts of cranial floor |
|
Where are the temporal bones located?
|
just below two parietal bones
|
|
What are the regions of the temporal bones?
|
- squamous region
- tympanic region - mastoid region - petrous region |
|
What is the squamous region of the temporal bones?
|
- flattened zygomatic process to cheekbone (zygomatic bone)
- mandibular fossa receives condyle of mandible |
|
What are the characteristics of the tympanic region of the temporal bones?
|
- surrounds external acoustic meatus
- styloid process points inferiorly - attachment area for muscles of tongue |
|
What are the characteristics of the mastoid region?
|
- mainly mastoid process
- major attachment area for neck muscle |
|
Where is the petrous region of the temporal bones located?
|
on internal aspects of temporal bone
|
|
What is the role of the petrous region?
|
- contributes to cranial base
- houses middle & inner ear cavities |
|
What are the important foramina associated to the petrous region of the temporal bone?
|
- jugular foramen
- carotid canal - internal acoustic meatus |
|
What are the bones that make up the facial bone set?
|
- inferior nasal concha
- lacrimal - mandible - maxilla - nasal - vomer - zygomatic |
|
How are the bones of the skull united?
|
by sutures
|
|
What part of the skull do facial bones form?
|
anterior part
|
|
What part of the skull do cranial bones form?
|
everything but anterior
|
|
How can the cranium be divided?
|
into vault and base
|
|
What is the vault?
|
forms the superior, lateral & posterior aspects of the skull and forehead
|
|
What is the base?
|
inferior aspect of skull
|
|
What is the function of the cranium?
|
surrounds and protects the brain & organs of hearing/balance
|
|
What are the distinct areas of the cranium?
|
- anterior (highest) fossa
- middle fossa - posterior ( lowest) fossa |
|
What does the curvature of the cranial bones allow?
|
allows them to be self-bracing
|
|
What are the main sutures of the cranial bones?
|
- Coronal
- Squamous - Lambdoid - Sagittal |
|
What do the coronal sutures connect?
|
frontal bone & parietal bones
|
|
What do the squamous sutures connect?
|
parietal bone & temporal bone
|
|
What do the lambdoid sutures connect?
|
occipital bone & 2 parietal bones
|
|
What do the sagittal sutures connect?
|
2 parietal bones
|
|
What are sutural bones?
|
tiny, irregular bones that occur within cranial suture as additional ossification centres
|
|
How do sutural bones appear?
|
rapidly during fetal development
|
|
What do the facial bones form?
|
framework of face
|
|
What cavities do the facial bones do?
|
- contain cavities for sensory organs of sight, smell & taste
- provide openings for passage of air & food - secure teeth - anchor facial muscles |
|
How many facial bones are there?
|
14
|
|
Which bone is the mandible?
|
lower jaw bone
|
|
Which facial bone is the strongest and largest?
|
mandible
|
|
Where do the left & right rami join?
|
at the mandibular angle
|
|
What is the mandibular notch?
|
separates two processes at the superior margin of each ramus
|
|
What are the coronoid processes?
|
insertion of temporalis muscle
|
|
What is the mandibular condyle?
|
articulates with mandibular fossa of temporal bone forming tempomandibular joint
|
|
What is the alveolar margin?
|
contains tooth sockets
|
|
What is the mandibular foramina?
|
nerves to teeth in lower jaw
|
|
What is the mental foramina?
|
blood vessels & nerves to chin and lower jaw
|
|
What is the vomer?
|
single, thin bone that forms nasal septum
|
|
How many maxillary bones are there?
|
2
|
|
How are the maxillary bones fused?
|
medially
|
|
What are the functions of the maxillary bones?
|
- alveolar margins hold teeth of upper jaw
- palatine processes project posteriorly forming anterior 2/3 of hard palate |
|
What is the incisive fossa?
|
serve as passageway for blood vessels and nerves
|
|
What are the frontal processes?
|
extend superiorly to the frontal bone, forming lateral aspects of bridge of the nose
|
|
What sinuses are contained in the maxillary bones?
|
maxillary sinuses
|
|
How many zygomatic bones are there?
|
2
|
|
Which bones are the zygomatic bones?
|
cheekbones
|
|
What is the role of the zygomatic bones?
|
- articulate with zygomatic processes
- contribute to inferolateral margins of orbit |
|
How many nasal bones are there?
|
2
|
|
What are the structure of nasal bones?
|
tiny, rectangular bones
|
|
What are the functions of the nasal bones?
|
- fuse medially to form bridge of nose
- articulate with frontal bone superiorly & maxillary bones laterally |
|
How many lacrimal bones are there?
|
2
|
|
What are the lacrimal bones?
|
finger-nail shaped bones in anterior, medial portion of orbit
|
|
What do the lacrimal bones articulate with?
|
- frontal bone
- ethmoid bone - maxillae |
|
What is the lacrimal fossa?
|
depression for lacrimal sac
|
|
How many palatine bones are there?
|
2
|
|
What is the structure of the palatine bones?
|
l-shaped
|
|
What do the palatine bones form?
|
- horizontal plates form part of hard palate
- vertical plates form nasal cavity and orbit |
|
How many inferior conchae are there?
|
2
|
|
What do the inferior conchae form?
|
- superior & middle nasal conchae from ethmoid bone
|
|
What is the structure of the inferior conchae?
|
thin, curved bone thats projects medially
|
|
What is the largest pair of conchae?
|
inferior conchae
|
|
What are the paranasal sinuses?
|
- frontal
- maxillary - sphenoid - ethmoid |
|
What are the characteristics of the ethmoid sinuses?
|
- mucosa-lined
- air-filled - lighten skull - enhance resonance of voice - connect to nasal cavity - help warm & humidify incoming air |
|
What is the role of the hyoid sinus?
|
- supports tongue
- gives attachment to muscles for swallowing & speech |
|
What are the characteristic of the hyoid sinus?
|
- doesn't articulate with any other bone
- horse-shoe shaped with body + 2 pairs of horns |
|
How many bones are in the vertebral column?
|
33 bones
|
|
How many vertebral bones remain separate for flexibility?
|
24
|
|
How many vertebral bones fuse?
|
9
|
|
How many composite bones are formed from the vertebral column bones?
|
2
|
|
What are the composite bones formed from the vertebral column bones?
|
sacrum & coccyx
|
|
What are the vertebral column bones?
|
7 cervical
12 thoracic 5 lumbar 3/4 cocccyx |
|
What are the main functions of the vertebral column?
|
- weight-bearing
- anchor for muscles & ligaments - protection of spinal cord |
|
What is the purpose of the vertebral column curvatures?
|
resilience & flexibility
|
|
What is the curvature of the cervical and lumbar regions of the vertebral column?
|
concave
|
|
What is the curvature of the thoracic and sacral regions of the vertebral column?
|
convex
|
|
What are the supporting elements of the vertebral column?
|
- ligaments
- intervertebral discs - |
|
What is the structure of ligaments?
|
- strap-like
- continuous bands down the front & back of vertebral bodies from neck to sacrum - broad anterior strongly attached to bony vertebrae & discs |
|
What is the purpose of ligaments?
|
support column of bones so we stay upright
|
|
What are the major supporting ligaments of the vertebral column?
|
anterior & posterior longitudinal
|
|
What do the broad anterior ligaments of the vertebrae do?
|
prevent hyperextension of spine
|
|
What are the characteristics of posterior ligaments of the vertebral column?
|
- narrow & weaker than anterior
- attached only to disc |
|
What do the posterior ligaments of the spine do?
|
prevent hyperflexion
|
|
What are the role of the intervertebral discs?
|
cushioning between bony vertebral bodies & act as shock absorbers
|
|
What percentage of the length of the vertebral column are the intervertebral discs?
|
25%
|
|
What are the structure of the intervertebral discs?
|
- each disc is circular with nucleus pulposus in centre & annulus fibrosus around periphery
|
|
What is the structure of the nucleus pulposus?
|
like a rubber ball with elasticiity and compressibility
|
|
What is the of the annulus fibrosus?
|
- holds together successive vertebrae
- resists tension in spine |
|
Where are the intervertebral discs thickest?
|
in the lumbar & cervical regions
|
|
Why are intervertebral discs thickest in the lumbar and cervical regions?
|
for flexibility
|
|
What is a herniated disc?
|
involves rupture of annulus fibrosus followed by protrusion of spongy nucleus pulposus through the annulus
|
|
How does pain result from herniated disc?
|
when protrusion presses on the spinal cord or spinal nerves
|
|
How are herniated discs treated?
|
- moderate exercise
- massage - heat therapy - pain killers |
|
What happens to vertebra as they descend the vertebral column?
|
they get larger
|
|
What are the characteristics of the vertebra?
|
- weight-bearing body + - - -- ---- vertebral arch enclose vertebral foramen
|
|
What passes through the vertebral arch?
|
spinal cord
|
|
What forms the vertebral canal?
|
successive formina of articulated vertebrae
|
|
What forms the vertebral arch?
|
2 pedicles + 2 laminae
|
|
What are the features of the pedicles?
|
have notches on superior & inferior surfaces
|
|
What are the intervertebral foramina?
|
lateral openings between adjacent vertebrae
|
|
What passes through intervertebral foramina?
|
spinal nerves from spinal cord
|
|
How many processes are from each vertebral arch?
|
7
|
|
What are the processes from the vertebral arch?
|
- 1 spinous process
- 2 transverse processes - 2 superior articular processes - 2 inferior articular processes |
|
What is the role of the spinous process?
|
muscle attachment
|
|
What are the role of transverse processes?
|
1 per side for muscle attachment
|
|
What is role of the articular processes?
|
- vertebrae above & below
- smooth, collagen-coated facets for articulation |
|
How many cervical vertebrae are there?
|
7
|
|
What are the characteristics of the first and second cervical vertebrae?
|
- unusual structure
- no intervertebral disc |
|
What are the third to seventh cervical vertebrae considered to be?
|
typical
|
|
What are the characteristics of the third to seventh cervical vertebrae?
|
- oval body
- broader side-to-side than front-to-back - spinous process short & split at end - large vertebral foramen - transverse process contains transverse foramen |
|
What is different about the seventh cervical vertebrae?
|
spinous process is short & split at end
|
|
What is the purpose of the transverse foramen in the cervical vertebrae?
|
for passage of vertebral artery to brain
|
|
What are the characteristics of the atlas?
|
- no body
- no spinous process - posterior & anterior neural arches - lateral masses with superior & inferior articular facets |
|
What is the atlas articulated with?
|
brain and C2
|
|
What does the articulation of the atlas allow?
|
nod yes
|
|
What are the characteristics of the axis?
|
has dens or odontoid process
|
|
What does the odontoid process of the axis allow?
|
- pivot
- movement of head from side to side |
|
How many thoracic vertebrae are there?
|
12
|
|
What happens to thoracic vertebrae as they descend?
|
increase in size
|
|
What are the characteristics of the thoracic vertebrae?
|
- all have ribs attached
- body roughly heart-shaped & bears facets for ribs - vertebral foramen circular - spinous process long & points down |
|
What do the transverse processes of the thoracic vertebrae have?
|
facets for articulation with tubercles of ribs
|
|
What is different about the eleventh and twelvth ribs?
|
tranverse processes do not have facets for articulation with tubercles of ribs
|
|
Where are the lumbar vertebrae located?
|
lower back
|
|
What is the function of the lumbar vertebrae?
|
weight-bearing
|
|
What are the characteristics of the lumbar vertebrae?
|
- bodies kidney shaped & increase in size from top to bottom
- triangular vertebral foramen |
|
What are the characteristics of the pedicles & laminae of the lumbar vertebrae?
|
shorter & thicker than those of other vertebrae
|
|
What are the characteristics of the spinous processes in the lumbar vertebrae?
|
- flat & short
- project directly back |
|
How are the orientation of the inferior & superior facets of the lumbar vertebrae unique?
|
- curved
- superior face in - inferior face out |
|
What do the sacral vertebrae originate?
|
as 5 separate vertebrae
|
|
What happens to the 5 parts of the sacral vertebrae in adolescence?
|
fuse to form sacrum
|
|
What does the sacrum articulate with?
|
- the 5th lumbar & laterally with the sacroiliac joints (hip bones)
|
|
What is the sacral promontory?
|
anterosuperior margin of first sacral vertebrae, bulges anteriorly into pelvic cavity
|
|
What are the transverse lines?
|
four ridges marking the lines of fusion of the sacral vertebrae
|
|
What are median sacral crests?
|
roughened, posterior midline in sacral surface
|
|
What is sacral canal?
|
vertebral canal within the sacrum
|
|
What is the sacral hiatus?
|
enlarged external opening this is the obvious inferior end of the sacral canal
|
|
What is the common name for the coccygeal vertebrae?
|
tailbone
|
|
What is the structure of the coccygeal vertebrae?
|
3 or 4 fused coccygeal vertebrae
|
|
What is the function of the coccygeal vertebrae?
|
attachment area for soem pelvic ligaments, but otherwise useless
|
|
What is the structure of the bony thorax?
|
thoracic vertebrae + ribs + costal cartilage + sternum
|
|
What is the function of the bony thorax?
|
- protective cage around heart, lungs, & major blood vessels
- supports shoulder girdle & upper limbs - provides area of muscle attachment for back, chest & shoulders |
|
Where is the sternum located?
|
anterior midline of thorax
|
|
What is the structure of the sternum?
|
fusion of manubrium, body, xiphoid process
|
|
What does the manubrium articulate with?
|
the clavicles via clavicular notches & 1st pair of ribs
|
|
Where does the body have notches for articulation of the sternum?
|
with the 2nd to 7th ribs
|
|
What are significant anatomical landmarks?
|
- jugular notch
- sternal angle - xiphisternal joint |
|
What is the sternal angle?
|
cartilaginous hinge between manubrium & body of sternum
|
|
What is the jugular notch?
|
- indentation you can palpate
- in line with disc between T2 & T3 |
|
What is the xiphisternal joint?
|
- fusion of sternal body & xiphoid process
- opposite T9 |
|
How many ribs are there?
|
12 per side
|
|
What are the characteristics of ribs?
|
- all attach at back to vertebral column
- curve inferiorly & anteriorly - typical rib is a bowed, flat bone |
|
How many true ribs are there?
|
7
|
|
What are the characteristics of true ribs?
|
attach directly to sternum
|
|
What are the remaining five ribs?
|
false ribs
|
|
Where do ribs 8 to 10 attach to sternum?
|
indirectly via costal cartilages & rib 7
|
|
What type of ribs are ribs 11 & 12?
|
floating ribs
|
|
What are the sections of the ribs?
|
- shaft
- head - neck |
|
What is the the structure of the shaft of the ribs?
|
- main portion of ribs
- contains costal groove |
|
What is a costal groove?
|
inferior margin of rib cage
|
|
What is the structure of the head of the ribs?
|
- 2 facets
|
|
Where do the facets of the head of the ribs articulate?
|
- one with the demi-facet on the body of the same-nubmered thoracic vertebra
- one on body of the superior vertebrae |
|
Where does a tubercle articulate?
|
with transverse process of same-numbered thoracic vertebrae
|
|
What are the bones of the pectoral girdle?
|
- pair of clavicles
- pair of scapula |
|
What is oriented anteriorly in the pectoral girdle?
|
medial ends of each clavicle joins sternum
|
|
What is oriented laterally in the pectoral girdle?
|
distal ends of clavicles meet scapulae laterally
|
|
What are the characteristics of the bones of the pectoral girdle?
|
- light
- very movable - attachment points of muscle to move upper limbs |
|
What are the benefits of the scapulae's attachment?
|
attached only laterally, allowing free movement of arm
|
|
What are the benefits of the glenoid cavity?
|
- shallow & poorly reinforced so it doesn't restrict movement of humerus
|
|
What is the glenoid cavity?
|
shoulder joint
|
|
What are the clavicles?
|
collarbones
|
|
What are the characteristics of the clavicles?
|
- s-shaped
- insertion points for muscles - braces to push arms laterally |
|
What does the curvature of the clavicles ensure?
|
outward fracture, away from subclavian artery
|
|
What are the scapulae?
|
shoulder blades
|
|
What are the characteristics of the shoulder blades?
|
- thin, triangular, flat bones
- dorsally between ribs 2 and 7 - superior, medial & lateral borders |
|
What is the spine acromion?
|
articulates with acromial end of clavicle
|
|
What is the coracoid process?
|
biceps muscle
|
|
How many bones are in the upper limbs?
|
30
|
|
What are the components of the upper limbs?
|
- arm
- forearm - hand |
|
What is the humerus?
|
only bone of the arm
|
|
Which is the longest bone of the upper limbs?
|
humerus
|
|
How does the humerus articulate?
|
- with the scapula & radius + ulna
- head inserts into glenoid cavity |
|
What is the anatomical neck of the humerus?
|
slight constriction immediately inferior to head of humerus
|
|
What are the function of the greater and lesser tubercles?
|
sites of attachment for rotator cuff muscles
|
|
What are the intertubercular grooves?
|
separate the greater and lesser tubercles
|
|
What often happens to the surgical neck?
|
fractures
|
|
What are the condyles of the humerus?
|
- trochlea
- capitulum |
|
Where does the trochlea articulate?
|
with ulna
|
|
Where does the capitulum articulate?
|
with radius
|
|
Where is the ulnar nerve located?
|
behind medial epicondyle
|
|
What are the bones of the forearm?
|
- radius
- ulna |
|
How are the bones of the forearm oriented?
|
parallel to each other
|
|
What do the bones of the forearm articulate with?
|
- with humerus & wrist bones
- with each other at superior & inferior radio-ulnar joints |
|
What is the interosseous membrane?
|
flat, flexible ligament that connects the radioulnar joints
|
|
What is the ulna?
|
elbow joint
|
|
What is the relationship between the radius and ulna?
|
ulna is slightly longer
|
|
What processes are found within the ulna?
|
- olecranon process
- coronoid process - styloid process |
|
What does the olecranon process prevent?
|
elbow hyperextension
|
|
What is the role of the styloid process in the ulna?
|
connects ligament to wrist
|
|
What is the radius?
|
wrist joint
|
|
What are the characteristics of the radius?
|
- head at proximal end
- distal end is wider - |
|
What is significant about the distal end of the radius?
|
has medial ulnar notch & lateral styloid process
|
|
How many bones are in the hand?
|
27
|
|
What are the elements of the hand?
|
- carpus
- metacarpus - phalanges |
|
What is the carpus?
|
wrist
|
|
What are the components of the carpus?
|
8 carpels
|
|
"So Long to Pittsburgh"
|
Scaphoid
Lunate Triquetrum Pisiform |
|
"Time To Call Home"
|
Trapezium
Trapezoid Capitate Hamate |
|
"Sally Left The Party To Take Cathy Home"
|
Scaphoid
Lunate Trisquetrum Pisiform Trapezium Trapezoid Capitate Hamate |
|
How many bones are in the metacarpus?
|
5
|
|
What are the distal ends of metacarpus?
|
knuckles
|
|
What are the metacarpus bones numbered?
|
1-5 from thumb to little finger
|
|
How are the proximal ends of the metacarpus articulated?
|
with wrist bones
|
|
How many phalanges are there?
|
3 per finger
2 per thumb |
|
What are phalanges?
|
miniature long bones
|
|
How are phalanges numbered?
|
1-5 from thumb to little finger
|
|
What are the classifications of the phalanges?
|
- proximal
- middle -distal |
|
What phalanges does the thumb have?
|
- proximal
- distal |
|
What are the functions of the pelvic girdle?
|
- attaches lower limbs
- transmits weight of upper body to lower limbs - supports visceral organs |
|
What is the structure of the pelvic girdle?
|
- left & right coxal bones unite anteriorly with sacrum at back
|
|
What does each os coax consist of?
|
- ilium
- ischium - pubis |
|
What happens to the bones of the os coax at puberty?
|
they fuse
|
|
What is the acetabulum?
|
area where all 3 bones join to form socket of hip joint
|
|
What is the general structure of the female pelvis?
|
- titled forward
- adapted for childbearing - true pelvis defines birth canal - capacity of true pelvis is borad, shallow, & and greater |
|
What is the bone thickness of the female pelvis?
|
- lesser thickness than males
- bones thinner, lighter, and smoother |
|
What are the characteristics of the acetabula of the female pelvis?
|
smaller and farther apart than males
|
|
What are the characterisitcs of the pubic angle/arch of the female pelvis?
|
- broader
- more rounded |
|
What is the general structure of the male pelvis?
|
- titled less forward
- adapted for support of heavier build and stronger muscles - cavity of true pelvis narrow & deep |
|
What are the characteristics of the bone thickness in the male pelvis?
|
- greater thickness than female
- bones heavier - markings more prominent |
|
What are the characteristics of the acetabula of the male pelvis?
|
- larger and closer than females
|
|
What are the characteristics of the pubic angle/arch of the male pelvis?
|
angle more acute
|
|
What is the ilium?
|
large flaring bone that forms most of os coax
|
|
What is the iliac crest?
|
superior border of ilium
|
|
What are the role of the iliac spines?
|
attachment of muscles
|
|
What is the pelvic brim?
|
superior margin of true pelvis
|
|
What is the ischium?
|
postero-inferior part of hip bone
|
|
What is the ischial tuberosity?
|
rough and glossly thickended surface of ischial body
|
|
What is the pubis?
|
anterior part of os coax
|
|
What occurs at the pubis symphysis?
|
two bones unite
|
|
What is the pubic crest?
|
thickening of anterior border of pubis
|
|
What are the components of the lower limbs?
|
- leg
- thigh - foot |
|
What is the bone of the thigh?
|
femur
|
|
Which bone is the largest & strongest?
|
femur
|
|
What is the fovia capitis?
|
ligament to acetabulum
|
|
What are the characteristics of the neck of the femur?
|
- angles laterally to shaft
- weak |
|
How does the femur articulate?
|
lateral & medial condyles articulate with tibia
|
|
Where is the patellar surface located?
|
between condyles
|
|
What happens at the lateral & medial epicondyles?
|
muscles attach
|
|
How many bones are in the leg?
|
2
|
|
What are the bones in the leg?
|
- tibia
- fibula |
|
What is the orientation of the tibia and fibula?
|
parallel
|
|
What is the role of the tibia?
|
transfer weight form femur to foot
|
|
What is the composition of the fibula?
|
interosseus membrane + proximal & distal tibiofibular joints
|
|
How many bones are in the foot?
|
26
|
|
What are the components of the foot?
|
- tarsus
- metatarsus - phalanges |
|
What is the tarsus?
|
ankle bone
|
|
What is the largest tarsus bone?
|
calcaneus (heelbone)
|
|
What are the metatarsus bones?
|
5 miniature bones
|
|
How are the metatarsus bones numbered?
|
1-5
|