Anatomy & Physiology I Test 1

Front 1

Anatomy

Back 1

(means "cutting open") is the study of body STRUCTURES

Front 2

Microscopic Anatomy

Back 2

Cytology & Histology

Front 3

Cytology

Back 3

The study of cells

Front 4

Histology

Back 4

The study of tissues

Front 5

Gross Anatomy

Back 5

Organs are at the border; systemic anatomy/regional anatomy

Front 6

Systemic Anatomy

Back 6

Organ Systems

Front 7

Regional Anatomy

Back 7

Body Regions

Front 8

Developmental Anatomy

Back 8

Describes structural changes during development (embryology)

Front 9

Surface Anatomy

Back 9

Study of the general form and surface marks; general doctors use this initially

Front 10

Clinical Anatomy

Back 10

Pathological Anatomy/ Radiographic Anatomy

Front 11

Pathological Anatomy

Back 11

Anatomy during disease conditions (inflamed glands, ect.)

Front 12

Radiographic Anatomy

Back 12

Anatomy seen through imaging techniques

Front 13

Organs can be __________ such as blood cells or _________ such as a heart or brain. Because of this, organs are part of both ________________ and __________ anatomy.

Back 13

small/large; microscopic/gross

Front 14

Physiology

Back 14

The study of the FUNCTIONS of living organisms, closely related to the organ/body structure

Front 15

Physiology can be divided into four parts

Back 15

1. Cell Physiology
2. Organ Physiology
3. Systemic Physiology
4. Pathophysiology

Front 16

Cell Physiology

Back 16

Cell Functions

Front 17

Organ Physiology

Back 17

Organ Functions

Front 18

Systemic Physiology

Back 18

Looks at the functions of an entire system (ex. cardiovascular system)

Front 19

Pathophysiology

Back 19

Functions in disease conditions

Front 20

The body can be studied at various organizational levels:

Back 20

1. Chemical or Molecular
2. Cellular
3. Tissue
4. Organ
5. Organ System
6. Organism
   

Hint 20

Chloe Creates Tons Of Ostrich Opals

Front 21

Chemical or Molecular

Back 21

Atoms combine to form molecules and organelles (proteins, genes, sodium, ect.)

Front 22

Cellular

Back 22

Organelles form cells, the smallest living creatures

Front 23

Tissue

Back 23

Group of cells with a common function

Front 24

Organ

Back 24

A structure with at least two tissue types that performs a specific task for that body

Front 25

Organ System

Back 25

Organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose

Front 26

Organism

Back 26

The sum of all levels working together

Front 27

Requirements for (NORMAL) life in humans

Back 27

1. Boundaries- inside must be distinctive from outside
2. Movement- muscular system, internal organs and inside cells
3. Responsiveness- nervous system cells but other cells also respond
4. Digestion & Metabolism- ingestion, breakdown of nutrients and the reactions needed
5. Excretion- waste out
6. Reproduction & Growth- at the cellular and organism level
   

Hint 27

Bow Munches Rapidly on Donuts & Reeses

Front 28

Eleven Organ Systems in the Body which are INTERDEPENDENT (dependent on each other)

Back 28

1. Integumentary
2. Skeletal
3. Muscular
4. Nervous
5. Endocrine
6. Cardiovascular
7. Lymphatic
8. Respiratory
9. Digestive
10. Urinary
11. Reproductive- THE ONLY SYSTEM NOT REQUIRED FOR LIFE

Hint 28

Isabella Sometimes Makes Nervous Emus Cry; Leo Rarely Dates Ugly Rhinos

Front 29

Integumentary System

Back 29

MAJOR ORGANS: skin, hair, sweat glands, nails

FUNCTIONS: protects against environmental hazards, helps regulate body temperature, provides sensory information

Front 30

Skeletal System

Back 30

MAJOR ORGANS: bones, cartilages, ligaments, bone marrow

FUNCTIONS: provides support and protection, nutrient storage, supports movement, forms blood cells

Front 31

Muscular System

Back 31

MAJOR ORGANS: skeletal muscels and tendons

FUNCTIONS: movement, provides protection and support for other tissues, temperature regulation (generates heat), made up of proteins and amino acids

Front 32

Nervous System

Back 32

MAJOR ORGANS: brain, spinal cords, peripheral nerves, sense organs

FUNCTIONS: directs responses to stimuli, coordinates or moderates activities of other organ systems, provides and interprets sensory information and external conditions, memory, sensory information

Front 33

Endocrine System

Back 33

MAJOR ORGANS: pituitary glands, thyroid gland, pancreas, adrenal glands, gonads (testes & ovaries), endocrine tissues in other systems

FUNCTIONS: directs long-term changes in the activities of other organ systems, adjusts metabolic activity and energy use, controls many structural and functional changes during development

Front 34

Cardiovascular System

Back 34

MAJOR ORGANS: heart, blood vessels, blood

FUNCTION: distributes blood cells, water, and dissolved materials (including nutrients, waste, oxygen, and carbon dioxide), distibutes heat and assists in control of body temperature

Front 35

Lymphatic System

Back 35

MAJOR ORGANS: spleen, thymus, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, tonsils

FUNCTION: defends against infection and disease, returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream

Front 36

Respiratory System

Back 36

MAJOR ORGANS: nasal cavities, sinuses, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, alveoli

FUNCTION: delivers air to alveoli (sites in lungs where gas exchanges occur), provides oxygen to bloodstream, removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream, produces sounds for communication

Front 37

Digestive System

Back 37

MAJOR ORGANS: teeth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas

FUNCTIONS: processes and digests food, absorbs and conserves water, absorbs nutrients (ions, water, and the breakdown products of dietary sugars, proteins, and fats), stores energy reserves

Front 38

Urinary Systems

Back 38

MAJOR ORGANS: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

FUNCTIONS: excretes waste products from the blood, controls water balance by regulating volume of urine produced, stores urine prior to voluntary elimination, regulates blood ion concentrations and pH

Front 39

Male Reproductive System

Back 39

MAJOR ORGANS: testes, epididymis, ductus deferens, seminal vesicles, prostrate gland, penis, scrotum

FUNCTIONS: produces male sex cells (sperm) and hormones

Front 40

Female Reproductive System

Back 40

MAJOR ORGANS: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, labia, clitoris, mammary glands

FUNCTIONS: produces female sex cells (oocyte) and hormones, supports developing embryo from conception to delivery, provides milk to nourish newborn infant

Front 41

Homeostasis

Back 41

the existence of a state internal environment (temperature, pH, and many others)

Front 42

A homeostatic regulatory mechanism consists of three parts

Back 42

1. Receptor- A sensor that monitors conditions and sends signals
2. Control Center- Analyzes input and determines the response
3. Effector- Produces the response or output
   

Front 43

Negative Feedback

Back 43

is the primary mechanism for homeostatic regulation, it opposes the change, most common

Front 44

Positive Feedback

Back 44

produces a response that exaggerates the change (ex. blood clotting at wound site, labor, etc.)

Front 45

Homeostasis requires...

Back 45

the coordination of multiple organ systems, but the nervous and endocrine system are usually the control center

Front 46

When homeostasis stops functioning properly...

Back 46

it is a sign that you are sick

Front 47

Anatomical Position

Back 47

Feet slightly apart, palms facing forward, etc.

Front 48

Diaphram

Back 48

divides ventral body cavity into the thoracic and abdominopelvic regions

Front 49

Viscera

Back 49

organs in the ventral cavity

Front 50

Serous Membrane

Back 50

A delicate two-layer membrane that lines the walls of the ventral cavity (pleura surrounds the lungs, pericardium surrounds the heart, and peritoneum surrounds the pelvic cavity); separated into the visceral and parietal layers.

Front 51

Visceral Layer

Back 51

Covers the viscera, closer to the organ

Front 52

Parietal Layer

Back 52

Lines inner surface of the cavity

Front 53

Pleural Cavities

Back 53

Envelope each lung

Front 54

Chemistry studies...

Back 54

the structure of matter

Front 55

Atoms

Back 55

Smallest units of matter (form elements); composed of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons

Front 56

Element

Back 56

A pure substance composed of atoms of the same kind.

Front 57

Charge

Back 57

Atoms are electrically charged neutral but atomic particles are charged. Protons are Positive, Electrons are Negative, and Neurons are Neutral

Front 58

Mass

Back 58

Atomic mass is the same element but with different mass due to a different number of neurons.

Front 59

Radioisotopes

Back 59

Unstable isotopes that emit radiation (3^H, 32^P, 35^S)

Front 60

Radioactivity

Back 60

Can be measured and today is used by biologists to date objects, create images, trace substances, and kill tumors.

Front 61

Atoms have never...

Back 61

been seen, the atom model is only assumed.

Front 62

Protons are

Back 62

positive

Front 63

Neutrons are

Back 63

neutral

Front 64

Electrons are

Back 64

negative

Front 65

The mass of protons and neutrons is...

Back 65

one a piece (proton= one, neutron= one)

Front 66

The number of protons determines...

Back 66

the type of atom it is. Example: Hydrogen has one proton, Helium has two protons, etc.

Front 67

Electrons have...

Back 67

"negligible mass" and are NOT counted in atom weight.

Front 68

Molecules

Back 68

Atoms combine (form chemical bonds) to form molecules. Molecules are the smallest particle of a substance that still retains the properties of the substance.

Front 69

Two Types of Chemical Bonds

Back 69

1. Ionic
2. Covalent

Front 70

Electrons Levels

Back 70

Two electrons reside in the 1st level, then eight in subsequent levels.

Front 71

Water is...

Back 71

the most abundant substance in the body (2/3 of body weight)

Front 72

Life is dependent on four properties of water:

Back 72

1. Solubility
2. Reactivity
3. High Heat Capacity
4. Lubrication

Front 73

Solubility

Back 73

Many molecules (solutes) are soluble in water (solvent) including salts, proteins, sugars, and even DNA. Water is easy for substances to dissolve in.

Front 74

Reactivity

Back 74

Water participates in chemical reactions, hydrolysis, and dehydration reactions.

Front 75

High Heat Capacity

Back 75

The ability to absorb heat.

• remains liquid over a wide range of temperatures
  
• carries a lot of heat when it evaporates (ex. sweating; when water evaporates off your skin, it carries away heat)

Front 76

Lubrication

Back 76

Water is an effective lubricant; protects against friction.

Front 77

pH is a measure of...

Back 77

acidity (or basicity) of a solution

• pH is negatively correlated to hydrogen ion concentration
• human fluids have a pH of about 7.4
• neutral pH is 7

Front 78

Acid

Back 78

• A hydrogen ion donor
  
• lowers pH
• adds hydrogen ions
• low pH= acidic= high concentration of hydrogen ions

Front 79

Base

Back 79

• a hydrogen ion acceptor
• increases pH
• takes hydrogen ions away
• high pH= basic= low concentration of hydrogen ions

Front 80

Buffers

Back 80

Components that stabilize the pH of a solution by removing (or providing) hydrogen ions

• Ex. Carbonic acid/ bicarbonate is a buffer system in blood.

Front 81

Salts

Back 81

Provide ions such as Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca++

Front 82

Positive Correlation

Back 82

Factor A increases, factor B increases; Factor A decreases, factor B decreases

Front 83

Negative Correlation

Back 83

Factor A increases, factor B decreases; Factor A decreases, factor B increases

Front 84

Biomolecules

Back 84

Molecules in living organisms

Front 85

Biomolecules- Carbohydrates (Function)

Back 85

• Energy source
• component of nucleic acids

Front 86

Carbohydrates can be divided into three groups:

Back 86

1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides
3. Polysaccharides

Front 87

Monosaccharides

Back 87

The simplest carbohydrates in that they cannot be hydrolyzed (broken down) to smaller carbohydrates

• Glucose- "Most important fuel" in the body
• Fructose- Monosaccharide found in many fruits (high-fructose corn syrup)
• Ribose/ Deoxyribose- Ribose component of RNA, Deoxyribose component of DNA

Hint 87

GFR

Front 88

Disaccharide

Back 88

Two monosaccharides form a disaccharide

• Sucrose- (table sugar) is formed by one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose
• Lactose- formed by galactose and glucose (intolerance)

Hint 88

SL

Front 89

Polysaccharide

Back 89

Formed by repeating units (polymers) of monosaccharides (Ex. starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin)

Hint 89

CS

Front 90

Cellulose

Back 90

A polysaccharide of glucose

• structural components of plants
• most common organic compound on earth
• we cannot digest cellulose in our digestive system, even cows cannot digest cellulose without the aid of gut bacteria
• fiber is a type of cellulose and although we cannot digest it, it is essential for good digestion

Front 91

Lipids (fats and oils)

Back 91

Functions:

• energy storage (especially long term)
• cell membrane structure
• precursors of hormones (the starting product to make some hormones)
• protection/ insulation

Types of Lipids:

• fatty acids
• triglycerides
• steroids
• eicosanoids
• phospholipids

Front 92

Fatty Acids

Back 92

• formed by a long carbon chain
• contain twice as much energy per mass than carbohydrates
• components of triglycerides (such as butter (fats))
• may contain double bonds (called unsaturated) that affect their shape (function)

Front 93

Saturated Fats

Back 93

animal fats, not good- natural shape but bad

Front 94

Unsaturated Fat

Back 94

Good fats, natural shape but good (ex. fish oil)

Front 95

Trans Fats

Back 95

Bad fats, unnatural shape and bad

• hydrogen changes the shape of trans fat
• the worst kind of fat
• trans fats are a risk for heart disease because: 1.) their shape resembles that of the saturated "bad" fats 2.) They are hard to break down in the body

Front 96

Triglycerides

Back 96

• Three fatty acids combine with glycerol to form a triglyceride, also known as neutral fats
• form fat deposits as energy reserves
• fat deposits also function for insulation and protection

Front 97

Eicosanoids

Back 97

• derived from the essential fatty arachidonic acid (we must consume this, cannot make it ourselves)
• Prostaglandins mediate local cellular activities (local hormones) such as blood clotting and inflammation

Front 98

Steroids

Back 98

• Lipid molecules with a typical structure of four carbon rings
• important for cell membrane structure (cholesterol)
• precursors of hormones (estrogen, testosterone)
• cholesterol can be synthesized by human cells- not essential for humans to consume

Front 99

Phospholipids

Back 99

• formed by two fatty acids "tail" and a glycerol "head" group
• contain hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions, which allow them to function as barriers in cell membranes
• Tail is hydrophobic region- hates water; head is hydrophilic region- tolerant of water. NO SUBSTANCE SEPARATES THE TAILS FROM THE HEADS! The center is just composed of a dense layer of tails
• phospholipid bilayer

Front 100

Proteins

Back 100

• large molecules made up of amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined by peptide bonds
• protein molecule production produces light reactions in fireflies and jellyfish

Front 101

Protein Functions

Back 101

• Support- structural proteins (collagen fibers, cytoskeleton)
• Movement- contractile proteins (myosin, kinesins)
• Transport- transport proteins (hemoglobin, ion pumps)
• Metabolic Regulation- enzymes that catalyze reactions
• Control- Hormones (insulin, growth hormone)
• Defense- antibodies are proteins
• iron makes blood red, located in hemoglobin

Hint 101

Sarah Manages To Munch Chocolate Donuts

Front 102

An ion is a...

Back 102

charged atom

Front 103

Proteins & Amino Acids

Back 103

• The chain of amino acids is called a polypeptide
• 20 different amino acids occur in proteins
• Amino acids contain an amino, a carboxylic acid, and am R group
• Eight amino acids are considered essential
• proteins can be made of 100-1000 amino acids
• R group is what changes and determines the amino acid

Front 104

Four Levels of Protein Structure

Back 104

1. Primary
2. Secondary
3. Tertiary
4. Quarternary

Front 105

Primary Level of Protein Structure

Back 105

The sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide; each protein is different

Front 106

Secondary Level of Protein Structure

Back 106

Alpha helix or pleated structure

Front 107

Tertiary Level of Protein Structure

Back 107

The 3D folding of the polypeptide

Front 108

Quaternary Level of Protein Structure

Back 108

The organization of several polypeptides made up of several polypeptides

Front 109

Nucleic Acids

Back 109

• large molecules composed of units called nucleotides
• functions:

-carry genetic information (DNA)

-protein synthesis (RNA)

energy currency (ATP)

Front 110

Nucleotide Structure

Back 110

• Each nucleotide contains three components:

1.) a sugar (monosaccharide)

2.) a phosphate group

3.) a nitrogen base

• the sugar can be Ribose or Deoxyribose
• The nitrogen base can be of four different flavors (A, T, G, C), they provide the genetic code- highly important, each sequence has a meaning

Front 111

RNA

Back 111

• a single chain of nucleotides
• is required for protein synthesis

Front 112

DNA

Back 112

• is a pair of nucleotide chains
• base pairing allows for efficient copying (A-T, T-A, G-C, C-G)
• passed down to offspring to determine genes
• the two strands twist to form a double helix

Front 113

ATP

Back 113

A high energy compound

• ATP is the energy currency in cells
• ATP contains high energy bonds that, when broken, release energy
• Conversion of ATP to ADP is the most important method of energy release in cells
• The reverse is the most important method of energy storage
• 3 phosphates, when a phosphate is lost, the name changes. (Ex. ATP-> uses energy-> ADP-> rests-> ATP again)

Front 114

Robert Hooke

Back 114

The father of the cell theory, list to observe cells

Front 115

Cell Theory (Four Parts)

Back 115

1. Cells are the building blocks of all living organisms
2. All cells come from other cells
3. The smallest units of life (viruses are smaller than cells, they are not living organisms)
4. Each cell maintains homeostasis at the cellular level

Front 116

Prokaryotes

Back 116

• DNA- In "nucleoid" region (no nucleus)
• Size- Usually smaller (1-10 uM)
• Metabolism- May not need oxygen
• Organization- Usually single celled organism
• Organelles- No organelles

Front 117

Eukaryotes

Back 117

• DNA- In nucleus
• Size- Usually larger (10-100 uM)
• Metabolism- Usually needs oxygen
• Organization- Often multicellular organism
• Organelles- Membrane-bound organelles

Front 118

The Eukaryotic Cell

Back 118

1. Plasma Membrane ("living organism must be defined")
2. Nucleus
3. Cytoplasm (Cytosol & Organelles)

Front 119

The Plasma Membrane- Lipids

Back 119

• Phospholipid bilayer (42% of weight) (heads and tails)
• Cholesterol (makes up part of the membrane)

Front 120

The Plasma Membrane- Proteins

Back 120

• 55% of the weight (large structures along the membrane)
• Integral- span the whole membrane (go from one side to another)
• Peripheral- associated with the membrane (does not go all the way across)

Front 121

The Parts of The Plasma Membrane

Back 121

1. Lipids
2. Proteins
3. Carbohydrates

Front 122

The Plasma Membrane- Carbohydrates

Back 122

• 3% of weight
• Attached to Phospholipids or proteins

Front 123

The Plasma Membrane- Functions

Back 123

1. Defines the outside
2. regulates exchange with the outside (selective permeability; the membrane chooses what can and what cannot enter)

Front 124

Nuclear Envelope

Back 124

Defines the nucleus

Front 125

Nuclear Pores

Back 125

Allow communication with cytosol and are made of proteins

Front 126

DNA is a...

Back 126

Nucleic Acid Molecule

Front 127

Chromosomes

Back 127

A single molecule of DNA

Front 128

Chromatin

Back 128

Complex of DNA plus associated proteins (DNA with proteins attached)

Front 129

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Back 129

Produced in the nucleus and exported to the cytosol through pores (produced from DNA)

Front 130

Nucleolus

Back 130

Synthesizes ribosomes (produces ribosomes)

Front 131

The Nucleus and It's Parts

Back 131

"Control Center of The Cell"

• Nuclear Envelope
• Nuclear Pores
• DNA
• Chromosomes
• Chromatin
• Messenger RNA (mRNA)
• Nucleolus

Front 132

Cytosol

Back 132

Fluid and Cytoskeleton

Front 133

Cytosol: Fluid

Back 133

• Water
• Soluble Nutrients (glucose, amino acids, etc.)
• Ions (such as Na+, K+)

Front 134

Cytosol: Cytoskeleton

Back 134

• Cellular Support
• Cell Migration (healing/cancer: cells move when they should not) does not move cell, but supports movement
• Microtubules tubulin
• Actin Filaments Actin

Front 135

Cytoplasm

Back 135

Everything in the cell except Nucleus (cytosol and organelles)

Front 136

Ribosomes

Back 136

Made of protein plus RNA (on ER or "free"); makes proteins

-Responsible for protein synthesis (either on membrane or free floating)

Front 137

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Back 137

A network of membranes

• It can be either rough (with ribosomes) or smooth (without ribosomes)
• Functions include lipid synthesis (in smooth ER) and calcium storage (both smooth and rough ER) and additional aid in manufacturing proteins (Rough ER)

Front 138

Golgi Apparatus

Back 138

Distribution Center

• A stack of flattened membranous discs (cistemae)
• modifies proteins (called post-translational modifications)
• renews and modifies the plasma membrane
• packages proteins and lipids to deliver to other cellular locations

Front 139

Lysosomes

Back 139

"Little Cannibals," can digest themselves or the entire cell

• The digestive system of the cell
• functions include digestion of damaged organelles, destroy ingested materials or bacteria, and autolysis (digestion of the cell)
• lysosomal storage diseases occur when lysosomes are defective

Front 140

Transcription occurs in the...

Back 140

Nucleus; DNA to RNA

Front 141

Translation occurs in the...

Back 141

Ribosomes; RNA to protein

Front 142

Peroxisomes

Back 142

Small and membrane-bound

• Functions:

1.) Break down some fatty acids

2.) Contain enzymes that break down hydrogen peroxide H2O2 (catalase)

Front 143

Mitochondria

Back 143

Composed of a double membrane, form crista, and contain DNA. The inside is called the matrix.

• power plants of the cell, produce ATP by two pathways: citric acid cycle (krebs) and the electron transport system (ETS)
• produce other mitochondria
• mitochondrial DNA is the maternal lineage

Front 144

Centrioles

Back 144

Cylindrical structures composed of short protein fibers

• Essential for chromosomal movement during cell division
• Cells with no centrioles do not divide

Front 145

Cilia

Back 145

Long slender extensions of the plasma membrane that can move material on the cell surface. Located in the respiratory tract, longer than microvilli

Front 146

Microvilli

Back 146

Small, finger-like projections of the plasma membrane that increases surface area, located in the digestive tract

Front 147

Four Essential Cellular Functions

Back 147

1. Transport across the plasma membrane (PM)
2. Metabolism
3. Protein Synthesis
4. Cell Growth- Mitosis

Hint 147

Tracy Moves Pesky Cheetahs

Front 148

Two Types of Transport Across The Plasma Membrane

Back 148

1. Passive Transport
2. Active Transport

Front 149

Passive Transport

Back 149

Does not use energy

Front 150

Simple Diffusion

Back 150

Passive molecular movement from high concentration to low concentration across the phospholipid bilayer- depends on lipid solubiliy and size (gases, water, fatty acids)

Front 151

Facilitated Diffusion

Back 151

Passive movement of molecules across a membrane by means of a protein carrier. Also from high to low

Front 152

Osmosis

Back 152

• The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from lower solute concentration to higher
• Osmotic pressure is the force by which water moves
• Osmolarity- Total concentration of solutes in a solution

Front 153

Tonicity

Back 153

Effect of an osmotic solution on cells

Front 154

Isotonic

Back 154

The cell is balanced, no movement in or out

Front 155

Hypotonic

Back 155

Lysis, swelling, cell bursts

Front 156

Hypertonic

Back 156

Crenation, shrinking

Front 157

Facilitated Diffusion Through Protein Carriers- Three Characteristics:

Back 157

1. Specificity- Protein carriers transport only one kind of molecule
2. Saturation- The number of carriers limit transport
3. Regulation- Can be stimulated or inhibited

Front 158

Active Transport

Back 158

Uses energy; the energy-dependent transport of molecules from low concentration to high concentration -Na+, K+, Ca++, H+ (ex. sodium/potassium pump, the proton pump, and the calcium pump)

Front 159

Vesicle Transport

Back 159

Movement of large particles (protein, protein/lipid complexes) in and out of cells in membrane vesicles

Front 160

Endocytosis

Back 160

Movement of proteins in; the internalization of membrane vesicles

Front 161

Exocytosis

Back 161

Movement of particles out; vesicles are delivered to the plasma membrane

Front 162

Three Types of Endocytosis

Back 162

1. Phagocytosis- large solids are taken up (cell eating)
2. Pinocytosis- Non-specific uptake of fluid in small vesicles (cell drinking)
3. Receptor- mediated endocytosis- selective uptake of molecules mediated by receptor proteins (very efficient)

Front 163

Endocytosis Functions

Back 163

• Secretion of proteins, bile acid
• Cell Growth
• Delivery of Plasma Membrane Proteins

Front 164

Cell Metabolism- Metabolism

Back 164

The set of chemical reactions in order to maintain life:

1. Catabolic Metabolism- Breakdown of nutrient molecules to obtain energy
2. Anabolic Metabolism- Synthesis of new biomolecules, growth (expends energy)

Front 165

Cell Metabolism- Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Back 165

High energy molecule; it is considered the "energy currency unit"

Front 166

Cell Metabolism- Glycolysis (anaerobic respiration)

Back 166

Catabolism of glucose (six-carbon) into pyruvate (three carbon); no need of O2 (oxygen)

Front 167

Cell Metabolism- Aerobic Respiration (Cellular Respiration)

Back 167

Mitochondrial breakdown of pyruvate in CO2 and water. O2 (oxygen) is needed

Front 168

Cell Metabolism- Glucose...

Back 168

is the main fuel in the body & ATP is the energy currency unit (type of carbohydrate monosaccharide)

Front 169

Protein Synthesis- Transcription

Back 169

• Instructions are copied from DNA into mRNA
• Helicases separate DNA strands in chromosomes
• Transcription factors decide what genes are transcribed
• RNA Polymerase binds to DNA and synthesizes messenger RNA (mRNA)

Front 170

Protein Synthesis- Translation

Back 170

mRNA moves to ribosomes, where instructions are "read"

1. mRNA binds to the ribosome- start codon
2. elongation, more amino acids are added
3. Termination, stop codon

Front 171

Cell Cycle- Interphase

Back 171

1.) The cell spends the majority of its time and performs normal functions, includes preparation for cell division (DNA replication, protein synthesis)

Front 172

Cell Cycle- Mitosis

Back 172

2.) Cell divison:

A. Mitosis- duplication of the nucleus. Mitosis is a continuous process:

1. Prophase
   
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase

B. Cytokinesis- Division of cytoplasm

Hint 172

Penelope Mangled Another Terrible Crestie

Front 173

PROPHASE

Back 173

Chromatids appear, nuclear envelope disappears

Front 174

METAPHASE

Back 174

The equatorial plane forms (chromosomes align)

Front 175

ANAPHASE

Back 175

Chromosomes separate

Front 176

TELOPHASE

Back 176

The nuclear membrane reforms

Front 177

CYTOKINESIS

Back 177

Division of the cytoplasm

Front 178

Cell Cycle- Implications to Cancer

Back 178

• Many cellular pathways become deregulated in cancer, including mitosis (anti-mitotic drugs= chemotherapy)
• Tumor
• Oncogenes/ tumor suppressors
• Molecular Markers

Front 179

Tumors

Back 179

Abnormal growth of cells (benign vs. malignant)

• Benign- is contained within a capsule, contained
• Malignant- does not have a capsule and can spread to other areas

Front 180

Oncogenes vs. Tumor Suppressors

Back 180

Oncogenes promote mitosis (accelerator pedal), tumor suppressors inhibit mitosis (brake pedal)

Front 181

Molecular Markers

Back 181

Protein over- expression or gene mutations characteristics of cancer cells

Front 182

Tissues are...

Back 182

groups of cells that perform the same function

Front 183

Four Basic Tissue Types:

Back 183

1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nervous

Front 184

Epithelial Tissue

Back 184

Layers of cells that cover external and internal surfaces- skin, respiratory tract, stomach, etc.

Front 185

Connective Tissue

Back 185

Connects epithelial tissue to the rest of the body, fills up space, provides support, stores fat

Front 186

Muscle Tissue

Back 186

Composed of cells specialized for contraction

Front 187

Nervous Tissue

Back 187

Tissue specialized to conduct electrical impulses

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Epithelial cells do have...

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polarity, they can be different from eachother

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Classifying Epithelia- Simple vs. Stratified

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• Simple- single layer
• Stratified- two or more layers

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Classifying Epithelia- Cell Shape

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• Squamous- flat
• Cuboidal- cube shaped
• Columnar- rectangular (column like)

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Pseudostratified

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Functions According to Cell Layers

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• Simple- Typical protected areas and regions where secretion and absorption occurs where thinness is an advantage lining of intestines
• Stratified- In areas where protection is needed such as skin/ the lining of the mouth

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Functions According to Cell Shape:

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• Simple Squamous- Most delicate epithelium. Lining inner surface of blood vessels, surface of alveoli
• Cuboidal and Columnar- In areas where secretion and absorption occurs; lining of intestine and stomach

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Free Surface (Apical)

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Surface that faces the internal or external environment

• Microvillar- abundant where absorption takes place, microvilli increases surface area 20 fold (ex. digestive tract)
• Ciliated- beat in a coordinated fashion to move material over the cell surface (ex. respiratory tract)
• Smooth- normal surface (salivary gland duct)

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Surface that faces other cells (lateral) forms three type of connections:

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• Desmosomes- Tie adjacent cells together
• Tight Junctions- Fusion of outer layers of plasma membrane preventing diffusion of fluids between the cells
• Gap Junction- Permit free diffusion of some ions and molecules between two cells

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Surface facing the basement membrane

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Hemidesmosomes- Attach the cell to the basement membrane

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Glands

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Collections of epithelial cells specialized for secretion

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Endocrine Glands

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Secrete into the intestinal tissue and blood

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Exocrine Glands

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Secrete into an epithelial surface

• Merocrine- release by exocytosis, salivary glands
• Apocrine- Involve the loss of cytoplasm, mammary glands
• Holocrine- Gland cell bursts releasing contents, sebaceous glands

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Connective Tissue Makeup and Organization

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Made up of cells that are spaced apart with a fluid or gel-like extracellular matrix

Organization

1. Specialized cells (fibroblast, adipocytes, chondrocytes, etc.)
2. Extracellular protein fibers (collagen, reticular, and elastic fibers)
3. Fluid known as ground substance

Extracellular fibers + ground substance= extracellular matrix

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Extracellular Protein Fibers:

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• Collagen Fibers- Long, straight, unbranched, and strong fibers made of collagen
• Reticular Fibers- Thin and Branched fibers made of collagen
• Elastic Fibers- Stretchy fibers made of the protein elastin

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Ground Substance

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Fills the space between cells and surrounds fibers. It is usually viscous, but it can be fluid (blood) or solid (bone)

-It is made of proteoglycans and hyaluronan

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Classification of Connective Tissues

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Based on the physical properties of the matrix:

• Proper (many types of cells, viscous matrix)

-loose

-dense

• Fluid (watery matrix)

-blood and lymph

• Supporting (less diverse cells, very dense matrix)

-cartilage and bone

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Cell Types

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• Fibroblasts
• Fibrocytes
• Macrophages
• Adipocytes
• Mesenchymal

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******* Flamingos Monsterously Ate Melody

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Fibroblasts

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Most abundant, maintain matrix (secrete hyalurona)

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Fibrocytes

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Maintain fibers, differentiate from fibroblasts

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Macrophages

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("big eaters")- Engulf pathogens of damaged cells

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Adipocytes

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store fat

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Mesenchymal

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Stem cells that divide and produce other connective tissue cell types)

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Types of Connective Tissue Proper- Loose

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Packing material of the body

• Areolar
  
• Adipose
  
• Reticular
  

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Arid Audoud Race

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Types of Connective Tissue Proper- Dense

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Most Volume is occupied by fibers, collagen dominates

• Regular
• Irregular

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Areolar Tissue

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• Least specialized
• Most volume occupied by ground substance

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Adipose Tissue

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Composed of large cells that contain a single large lipid droplet. It provides padding, insulation, packing

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Reticular Tissue

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Makes a framework of reticular fibers around cells for support

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Dense Regular

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• Collagen fibers are parallel (tendons and ligaments)
• provide firm attachment

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Dense Irregular

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• Interwoven meshwork of fibers (confer selasticity to the skin)
• provide strength to resist forces applied from many directions
• found in the dermis, capsules or organs

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Fluid Connective Tissues

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• Watery matrix with distinctive collections of cells
• Blood and lymph

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Supporting Connective Tissue

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Provides a strong framework that supports the rest of the body: cartilage and bone

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Cartilage

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• Function- Cartilage provides support to the body
• Chondrocytes are the only cells in cartilage. They occupy small chambers known as lacuna
• The ground substance is a firm gel
• It is avascular

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Types of Cartilage

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• Hyaline
  
• Elastic
• Fibrocartilage

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Hyaline Cartilage

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Contains only collagen fibers, very strong. Most abundant in the body (nose, end of bones)

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Elastic Cartilage

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Contains collagen and elastic fibers, flexible and rarely breaks (outer ear)

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Fibrocartilage Cartilage

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Contains little ground substance. Mostly collagen fibers. Absorbs shocks, reduces friction (intervertebral discs, menisci in the knee joint)

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Bone

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• The Matrix is a mixture of calcium phosphate but also contains collagen fibers, which makes it remarkably strong
• Bone cells or osteocytes are located in lacuna
• Organized in units called osteons

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Muscular Tissue

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Specialized for movement

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Types of Muscle (Structure/ Function)

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• Based on Structure: Striated vs. Non-Striated
  
• Based on Function: Voluntary vs. Involuntary

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Three Types of Muscles

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1. Striated Voluntary (Skeletal Muscle)
2. Striated Involuntary (Cardiac Muscle)
3. Non-Striated Involuntary (Smooth Muscle)

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Skeletal Muscle

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• Has striated cells with multiple nuclei
• Occurs in the muscles attached to the skeleton
• Functions in voluntary movement of water

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Cardiac Muscle

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• Has branching, striated cells, each with a single nucleus
  
• occurs in the wall of the heart
• functions in the pumping of blood
• is voluntary

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Smooth Muscle

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• Has spindle-shaped cells, each with a single nucleus
  
• cells have no striations
• functions in movement of substances in lumens of body
• is involuntary
• is found in blood vessel walls and walls of the digestive tract

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Nervous Tissue

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Coordinates the activities and movements of the body, the brain and spinal cord contain 98% of nervous tissue.

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Two Types of Neural Cells

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1. Neurons- Neural cells that carry the electrical impulses
2. Neuroglia- supporting cells

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What are stem cells?

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Cells that can divide and differentiate:

1. Embryonic- Most potency
2. Adult- Less potency