Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
450 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
What structures (in order of food passage) compose the long muscular tube of the digestive system?
|
1. mouth
2. pharynx 3. esophagus 4. stomach 5. small intestine 6. large intestine 7. anus |
|
|
What are the 4 accessory glands of the digestive system?
|
1. liver
2. gallbladder 3. pancreas 4. salivary glands |
|
|
What is the function of all of the accessory glands?
|
to dump secretions into the digestive tube
|
|
|
What are the 3 functions of the digestive system?
|
1. break down nutrients into building blocks
2. absorption of nutrients 3. eliminates solid waste material |
|
|
What 8 structures of the digestive system are in the oral cavity?
|
1. lips
2. cheeks 3. vestibule 4. teeth 5. tongue 6. hard palate 7. fauces 8. uvula |
|
|
What is the vestibule?
|
the opening of the mouth
|
|
|
What are the 2 functions of the cheeks in degestion?
|
1. mastication
2. to be the sidewalls of the mouth |
|
|
What type of tissue lines the cheeks?
|
stratified squamous epithelium
|
|
|
What are the 2 dentitians?
|
1. deciduous teeth
2. permanent teeth |
|
|
What is the function of the teeth?
|
grind and break up food
|
|
|
How do some bacteria make cavities?
|
by fermenting CHO acid tha wears the enamel away
|
|
|
What type of tissue is the tongue made up of?
|
skeletal muscle
|
|
|
What are the 3 functions of the tongue?
|
1. organ of taste
2. phonation 3. keep food between teeth |
|
|
What attaches the tongue to the base of the mouth?
|
the frenulum
|
|
|
What is the process that make the hard palate?
|
the palatine process of the maxillary bones
|
|
|
What are the 2 difficulties that someone born with a cleft palate may have?
|
1. hard to swallow
2. language development problems |
|
|
What is the function of the uvula?
|
to close off the passageway to the nasopharynx when swallowing
|
|
|
What are located between the folds that run laterally to the uvula?
|
palatine tonsils
|
|
|
What tissue lines the larynx?
|
stratified squamous epithelium
|
|
|
what are the 3 layers that make up the wall of the digestive tube?
|
1. tunica mucosa
2. tunica submucosa 3. tunica muscularis |
|
|
Define Tunica mucosa
|
innermost of layers with mucous membrane epithelium attached to the basement membrane and then to connective tissue
|
|
|
What juncions are very present in the digesetive tube?
|
tight junctions to keep material in GI tube
|
|
|
What 2 cells are i the tunica mucosa?
|
1. enteroendocrine cells
2. glandular cells |
|
|
Define enteroendocrine cells
|
hormone-producing cell in the tunica mucosa
|
|
|
What makes up the lamina propria?
|
aereolar connective tissue that contains many blood and lymph vessels and MALT
|
|
|
Define Tunica submucosa
|
submucous membrane layer that's composed of aereolar connective tissue
|
|
|
Which layer of the GI tube is the Meissner's plexus associated with?
|
the tunica submucosa
|
|
|
Define Meissner's plexus or submucosal plexus
|
nerve plexus made up of millions of neurons.
|
|
|
Which nerve fibers are included in the meissner's plexus?
|
sympathetic and parasympatheitc nerve fibers (sensory and motor)
|
|
|
What are 3 functions of the tunica submucosa?
|
1. to regulate movement of mucosa
2. to stimulate glandular cells in mucosa 3. to form enteric nervous system |
|
|
Define Tunica muscularis
|
made up of smooth muscle it is the most superficial layer of the GI tube
|
|
|
What are the 2 smooth fibers/layers of the tunica muscularis?
|
1. longitudinal layer=out
2. circular layer=in |
|
|
Which plexus is included in the tunica muscularis?
|
myenteric plexus
|
|
|
what is the function of the myenteric plexus and where is it found?
|
to control the activity of the smooth muscle fibers; in the tunica muscularis
|
|
|
What is the serous membrane of the GI tube?
|
peritoneum
|
|
|
what is the largest of the serous membranes?
|
peritoneum
|
|
|
Define the retroperitoneal
|
Organs that lie against the posterior cavity wall.
|
|
|
What are the functions of the large folds in the peritoneum?
|
1. to provide a passageway for lymph and blood vessels and nerves to organs
2. to anchor all organs in place in the abdominopelvic cavity |
|
|
What are 5 the folds in the peritoneum?
|
1. mesentery
2. mesocolon 3. falciform 4. lesser omentum 5. greater omentum |
|
|
Define mesentery fold
|
fold that forms in the peritoneum in the small intestine that anchors the small intestine to the posterior wall
|
|
|
Define mesencolon
|
fold that forms peritoneum at large intestine that anchors the large intestine to the posterior cavity wall
|
|
|
Define Falciform ligament
|
fold that forms peritoneum and attaches liver to anterior cavity wall and diaphragm
|
|
|
Define Lesser omentum
|
fold that forms at stomach and first part of small intestine (duodenum of small intestine). it suspends stomach and duodenum to liver.
|
|
|
Define greater omentum
|
largest of folds that forms in the area of the large intestine and small intestine and anchors the large intestine and small intestine to the cavity wall.
|
|
|
What is the "fatty apron"?
|
greater omentum
|
|
|
Where does the greater omentum hang down?
|
the anterior aspect of the abdominal cavity
|
|
|
Define peritonitis
|
inflammation of the peritoneum
|
|
|
Where does the esophagus extend?
|
between the pharynx and stomach
|
|
|
what is the esophagus posterior to?
|
the trachea
|
|
|
How does teh esophagus run through the diaphragm?
|
through the esophageal hiatus
|
|
|
What are 4 modifications of the esophageal wall?
|
1. no serous membrane covering. instead it's a fibrous connective tissue layer
2. mucosa is stratified squamous epithelium 3. muscle layer superior to esophagus is skeletal but inferior is smooth muscle 4. at the inferior end of the muscle layer is the lower esophageal sphincter or cardiac sphincter |
|
|
What is the function of the lower esophageal sphincter or cardiac sphincter?
|
1. regulates passageway from esophagus to stomach
2. prevents material in stomach from moving back into esophagus |
|
|
What is the function of the esophagus?
|
to be a simple passageway for food into the stomach
|
|
|
Where does the stomach extend to and from?
|
from the esophagus to the duodenum
|
|
|
what digestive structure is located right under the diaphragm?
|
the stomach
|
|
|
How far does the stomach extend and which organ is it located inferiorly?
|
from the esophagus to the duodenum; under diaphragm
|
|
|
WHat is the function of the stomach?
|
to store food until the small intestine is able to digest it
|
|
|
WHat shape is the stomach?
|
a J shape
|
|
|
what are the 3 regions of the stomach?
|
1. fundus
2. body 3. pyloric region/antrum/pyloric antrum |
|
|
Define fundus
|
The region of the stomach that the esophagus empties in to
|
|
|
Define pyloric region or pyloric antrum
|
the constricted region in the stomach
|
|
|
Define Cardia
|
Passageway between the esophagus and stomach
|
|
|
Define Pyloric Canal
|
passageway between the stomach and duodenum
|
|
|
Define lower esophageal sphincter
|
passageway between esophagus and stomach
|
|
|
Define Pyloric Sphincter
|
regulates passageway between pyloric region and duodenum
|
|
|
What is a modification in the tunica mucosa of the stomach that helps protect the tunica mucosa from HCL?
|
the alkaline pH mucous
|
|
|
Define Rugae
|
large folds of the tunica mucosa that allow the expansion of the tunica mucosa as the stomach fills with food
|
|
|
What is a modification in the tunica mucosa of the stomach that has to do with superficial epithelium?
|
the superficial epithelium has cloumnar cells and gastric pits that secrete gastric juices
|
|
|
What are the 3 kinds of gastric glands in the superficial epithelium of the stomach in teh tunica mucosa?
|
1. Zymogen=chief cell
2. Parietal cells 3. Mucous cells |
|
|
What is the role of zymogen in the superficial epithelium?
|
to produce pepsinogen that secretes gastric lipase
|
|
|
What is pepsinogen?
|
an inactive enzyme that's produce by zymogen
|
|
|
What is the role of parietal cells in the superficial epithelium of the stomach?
|
to secrete HCl and intrinsic factor B12
|
|
|
Which 3 cells are included in the enteroendocrine cells of the stomach?
|
1. G cells
2. D cells 3. Cells in the Fundus |
|
|
What is the role of the G cell as an enteroendocrine cell?
|
to secrete gastrin hormone to make gastric juices and stimulate gastric motility by stimulating smooth muscle in stomach
|
|
|
What is the role of the D cell as an enteroendocrine cell?
|
to secrete somatostatin that inhibits secretion of gastrin
|
|
|
What is the role of the cells in the fundus?
|
to secrete hormone called gherlin that stimulates the sensation of hunger
|
|
|
What does gastrin hormone do?
|
stimulates gastric glands to make gastric juices and stimulates gastric motility
|
|
|
What is the role of somatostatin in the stomach?
|
to inhibit secretion of gastrin and therefore the making of gastric juices
|
|
|
What are the 3 layers in the tunica muscularis in the stomach?
|
1. longitudinal layer
2. circular layer 3. oblique layer |
|
|
How much gastric juice is made everyday in you (about)?
|
2000-3000 ml
|
|
|
What is the pH of HCl-?
|
2.5 or 2.0
|
|
|
what type of enzymes do gastric juices have?
|
protein digesting ones
|
|
|
which nervous system is used in the stomach to control the gastric juices?
|
autonomic nervous system/parasympathetic nervous system
|
|
|
Does the parasympathetic nervous system increase or decrease SLUD?
|
increase
|
|
|
What are the 3 phases that control the gastric juices in the stomach?
|
1. cephalic phase
2. gastric phase 3. intestinal phase |
|
|
What "turns on" the cephalic phase?
|
sight of food, smell, and taste
|
|
|
Describe the route that the info passes through during the cephalic phase
|
1. sendory info to cerebral cortx
2. hypothalamus 3. medulla oblongat 4. vagus nerve 5. submucosal plexus 6. stimulate G cells to secrete gastrin |
|
|
When does the gastric phase begin?
|
when food reaches the stomach
|
|
|
What stimulates which glands during the gastric phase?
|
submucosal plexus stimulates gastric glands to G cells
|
|
|
When does the intestinal phase begin?
|
when food moves into duodenum
|
|
|
What phase of the gastric juice controls inhibits gastric juice production?
|
intestinal phase
|
|
|
What do the receptors in the intestinal phase of gastric control produce?
|
1. secretin hormone
2. cholecytokinin hormone |
|
|
What is the job of secretin during the intestinal phase of gastric juice control?
|
to go to the stomach and tell it to stop secreting gastric juices
|
|
|
What is the job of cholecystokinin during the intestinal phase of gastric juice control?
|
to go to the stomach and tell is to stop sending food down to the duodenum
|
|
|
What is the principal site of chemical digestion and absorption of nutrients?
|
small intestine
|
|
|
From where to where does the small intestine extend?
|
from the pyloric region of the stomach and cecum of the large intestine
|
|
|
What are the 3 regions of the small intestine?
|
1. duodenum
2. jejunum 3. ilium |
|
|
What is the shortest, widest and most fixed region of the small intestine?
|
duodenum
|
|
|
What are the Which artery serves the retroperitoneal of the duodenum?
|
celiac artery
|
|
|
Where do the secretions come from to the duodenum?
|
liver, gallbladder, and pancreas
|
|
|
What is the significance of the Brunner's glands in the duodenum of the small intestine?
|
to secrete mucous that is very rich in HCO3 which buffers the HCl coming from the stomach.
|
|
|
Which artery serves the jejunum of the small intestine?
|
the superior mesenteric artery
|
|
|
Which valve and which artery serves the ilium of the small intestine?
|
ileocecal valve and superior mesenteric artery
|
|
|
Define Plicae Circularies
|
permanent transverse folds in the tunica mucosa
|
|
|
What are the two functions of the plicae circularies?
|
1. to increase surface area of the tunica mucosa
2. to cause food to churn |
|
|
Define Villi
|
finger-like projections into the lumen
|
|
|
what are 2 functions of the villi in the small intestine?
|
1. to increase surface area of the epithelial layer
2. to utilize lacteal |
|
|
Define lacteal
|
blind-ended lymph capillary associated with vascular capillary that functions in the absorption of fat
|
|
|
Define microvilli
|
projections of the apical surface of the epithelial cells that function in increasing the surface area of the epithelial cells
|
|
|
what are 6 modified cells/tissues in the tunica mucosa of the small intestine?
|
1. Brunner's glands
2. absorptive cells 3. crypts of Lieberkuhn=intestinal glandular cells 4. enteroendocrine cells 5. paneth cells 6. Peyer's patches |
|
|
What is the function of the Crypts of Lieberkuhn?
|
to secrete specific enzymes needed for digestion
|
|
|
Which hormones are secretes from the enteroendocrine cells in the small intestine?
|
1. secretin
2. CCK=cholecystokinin 3. gastric inhibitory peptide |
|
|
What are 2 other names for gastric inhibitory peptide?
|
1. GIP
2. glucose dependent insulinotrpic peptide |
|
|
what are the 2 functions of gastric inhibitory peptide?
|
1. to secrete the release of insulin
2. inhibit gastric motility |
|
|
What is the function of Paneth cells?
|
to secrete lysozomes that are capable of phagocytosis and aid in protection.
|
|
|
What is the function of the large intestine?
|
to compact waste material and get rid of it
|
|
|
how long is the large intestine?
|
about 5 feet long
|
|
|
how does the large intestine attach to the posterior cavity wall?
|
by the mesocolon
|
|
|
What are the four main regions of the large intestine?
|
1. cecum
2. colon 3. rectum 4. anus |
|
|
Where is the cecum attached to the ilium?
|
at the ileocecal valve
|
|
|
what is the function of the ileocecal valve?
|
to regulate movement of material from the small to the large intestine.
|
|
|
Define vermiform process and give the other name for it
|
coil tube that opens into cecum;appendix
|
|
|
What is the function of the cecum?
|
to collect material from the small intestine and begin to compact it into waste
|
|
|
Which 4 regions is the colon divided into?
|
1. ascending colon
2. transverse colon 3. descending colon 4. sigmoid colon |
|
|
Describe the position of the ascending colon
|
moves upward in the right cavity to the underside of the liver
|
|
|
describe the position of the transverse colon
|
crosses the cavity from the left to the right
|
|
|
describe the position of the descending colon
|
moves down left side of the cavity and runs into iliac crest on pelvic girdle
|
|
|
Describe the sigmoid colon
|
the area of the large intestine that bends around the iliac crest and ends in the rectum
|
|
|
What does each anal column contain?
|
vein and artery
|
|
|
What type of epithelium is present at the anus?
|
keratinized epithelium
|
|
|
what are the 2 sphincters of the anus?
|
1. internal sphincter
2. external sphincter |
|
|
Describe the internal sphincter of the anus
|
circular band of smooth muscle in wall of the tube
|
|
|
Describe the external sphincter of the anus
|
bundles of skeletal muscle around outside of tube
|
|
|
what cells are present in the tunica mucosa of the large intestine?
|
goblet cells
|
|
|
What are three modifications made in the tunica muscularis of the large intestine?
|
1. longituinal layer is thickened in 3 bands=taeniae coli
2. haustra are present 3. epiploic appendages are present |
|
|
Define Haustra
|
pouch-like structures in the tunica muscularis of the large intestine
|
|
|
Define epiploic appendages (omental appendices)
|
sacs of the peritoneum that are filled with fat
|
|
|
Where is the parotid gland?
|
anterior and inferior to the ears
|
|
|
Where are the submandibular glands found?
|
beneath the base of the tingue
|
|
|
Where are the sublingual glands found?
|
superior to the submandibulars
|
|
|
How are all of the exocrine glands drained in the oral cavity?
|
by ducts
|
|
|
what 6 components make up saliva?
|
1. water
2. electrolytes 3. urea 4. uric acid 5. IgA 6. Enzymes |
|
|
Which 3 enzymes are in saliva?
|
1. lysozymes
2. salivary amylase 3. lingual lipase |
|
|
What is the function of salivary amylase?
|
to break down starch to maltose
|
|
|
what is the function of lingual lipase?
|
to break down fat
|
|
|
What control does the Parasympathetic nervous system have on salivation?
|
it increases it
|
|
|
What control does the sympathetic nervous system have on salivation?
|
it decreases it
|
|
|
What 3 regions divide the pancreas?
|
1. head
2. body 3. tail |
|
|
what are the 2 large ducts of the pancreas?
|
1. pancreatic duct=duct of Wirsung
2. accessory duct |
|
|
What does the pancreatic duct empty into when it merges?
|
the duodenum of the small intestine
|
|
|
Which duct it the larger one, the accessory or the pancreatic duct?
|
the pancreatic duct
|
|
|
What makes up the exocrine function?
|
acini and pancreatic juices
|
|
|
Are exocrine or endocrine functions more present in the pancreas?
|
exocrine
|
|
|
Define Acini
|
small clusters of glandular epithelial cells that make up 99% of pancreatic cells and make pancreatic juices
|
|
|
How much pancreatic juice do you make per day?
|
1 liter
|
|
|
which hormones control pancreatic juices?
|
1. Secretin
2. CCK |
|
|
what do pancreatic juices contain?
|
digestive enzymes
|
|
|
What cells make up the endocrine portion of the pancreas?
|
pancreatic islets=islets of langerhans
|
|
|
What are the 3 main types of cells in islets?
|
1. alpha cells
2. beta cells 3. delta cells |
|
|
What do alpha cells secrete?
|
glucagon
|
|
|
What is the function of alpha cells in the pancreas?
|
to increase blood glucose levels
|
|
|
What is the function of Beta cells in the pancreas?
|
to decrease blood glucose levels
|
|
|
What do Beta cells secrete?
|
insulin
|
|
|
What do delta cells secrete?
|
somatostatin=growth hormone-inhibiting hormone
|
|
|
What are 3 functions of delta cells?
|
1. inhibits activity of growth hormone
2. suppresses secretion of insulin and glucagon 3. slows rate of food absorption and enzyme secretion |
|
|
Where is the liver located in the abdomen?
|
under the diaphragm
|
|
|
what are the 2 coverings of the liver?
|
1. peritoneum
2. dense connective tissue |
|
|
What 2 lobes does the falciform ligament divide into?
|
1. right lobe
2. left lobe |
|
|
Which lobe is the larger of the two falciform lobes?
|
the right one
|
|
|
what 2 lobes odes the right lobe of the falciform ligament divide into?
|
1. caudate
2. quadrate |
|
|
What do all lobes divide into?
|
hepatic lobules
|
|
|
Define Hepatic Lobules
|
functional units of the liver
|
|
|
Define Hepatocytes
|
specialized epithelial cells foundin the liver
|
|
|
How are hepatocytes arranged?
|
in plates where the center of the plate has a central vein
|
|
|
WHat does the liver have as oppose to capillaries?
|
sinusoids
|
|
|
Define sinusoids
|
large, irregular-chaped capillaries with large lumen
|
|
|
What line the sinusoids?
|
fixed macrophages=kepffer cells=stellate reticuloendothelial cells
|
|
|
What is the function of the stellate reticuloendothelial cells in the liver?
|
to eliminate old formed elements from the blood and remove garbage absorbed by the digestive tube
|
|
|
What do hepatocytes secrete?
|
bile
|
|
|
Where is or who makes ANP?
|
the wall of the atria
|
|
|
What causes ANP to be made?
|
High blood pressure
|
|
|
What do the left and right hepatic ducts merge to form?
|
the common hepatic duct
|
|
|
what does the common hepatic duct drain?
|
bile out of the liver
|
|
|
what duct drains the gallbladder?
|
the cystic duct
|
|
|
where does the common bile duct empty?
|
into the duodenum
|
|
|
what are the 3 principal vessels that serve the liver?
|
1. hepatic artery
2. hepatic portal vein 3. hepatic vein |
|
|
what is the function of the hepatic artery?
|
to bring oxygenated blood to the liver
|
|
|
what is the function of the hepatic portal vein?
|
to drain blood from the digestive tube and bring nutrient rich blood to the liver
|
|
|
what forms the hepatic portal vein?
|
the mesenteric and splenic veins
|
|
|
What is the function of the hepatic vein?
|
to drain deoxygenated blood from the liver
|
|
|
what 3 vessels make up the portal triad?
|
1. branch of the hepatic artery
2. branch of the hepatic vein 3. bile duct |
|
|
What is the portal triad's function?
|
to serve the functional unit of the liver by bringing nutrient-rich blood to the liver and carrying off the bile that hepatocytes make
|
|
|
how much bile do you produce per day?
|
800-1000 ml
|
|
|
what are the 7 components that make up bile?
|
1. water
2. bile acids 3. bile salts 4. bile pigments 5. cholesterol 6. lecithin 7. electrolytes |
|
|
What is the most abundant component of bile?
|
bile salts
|
|
|
what is the only digestive portion of bile?
|
bile salts
|
|
|
what is the function of bile salt?
|
to emulsify fat and absorb fat from the small intestine
|
|
|
what is the only bile pigment we talked bout?
|
bilirubin
|
|
|
when is bilirubin produced?
|
during the breakdown of heme
|
|
|
what is cholesterol used for in the bile?
|
it's used for anabolism and to make hormones
|
|
|
What is lecithin in one word?
|
phospholipid
|
|
|
what do bile salts and lecithin do together in bile?
|
make cholesterol soluble in water
|
|
|
what is an important electrolyte in bile?
|
bicarbonate
|
|
|
what does secretin stimulate the release of?
|
bile
|
|
|
what is CCK's job in the gall bladder?
|
to contract and release bile
|
|
|
What does the liver convert glucose to?
|
glycogen
|
|
|
What does the liver convert non-carbs to?
|
glucose
|
|
|
What does the liver convert lactic acid to?
|
glucose
|
|
|
What does the liver convert galactose to?
|
glucose
|
|
|
What does the liver convert excess carbohydrate to?
|
fat/triglycerides
|
|
|
What does the liver convert excess protein to?
|
fat/triglycerides
|
|
|
what are 6 sources that the liver makes?
|
1. cholesterol
2. lipoproteins 3. phospholipids 4. bile 5. heparin 6. plasma proteins |
|
|
the liver is capable of deamination. what does this mean?
|
it can remove an amine group from the amino acid
|
|
|
what does the liver convert amino acids into?
|
ammonia and then urea
|
|
|
define urea
|
nitrogen-containing waste compound
|
|
|
What compounds is the liver capable of storing?
|
1. iron
2. copper 3. fat-soluble vitamins |
|
|
how does penicillin that's processed through the liver leave the body?
|
through fecal material
|
|
|
which duct serves the gallbladder?
|
cystic duct
|
|
|
What is the function of the gallbladder?
|
to store bile when the duodenum is empty
|
|
|
What is the most common component of gallstones?
|
cholesterol
|
|
|
do men or women get more gallstones?
|
women
|
|
|
What is the wet wad of food that was formed by chewing?
|
bolus
|
|
|
What is another word for swallow?
|
deglutition
|
|
|
define deglutition
|
process of moving food from mouth to stomach
|
|
|
What are the 3 phases of swallowing?
|
1. voluntary phase
2. pharyngeal phase 3. esophageal phase |
|
|
What occurs during the voluntary phase of swallowing?
|
the tongue moves the bolus up and back to the oropharynx
|
|
|
what happens during th pharyngeal phase of swallowing?
|
the bolus reaches receptors in the orapharynx that send impulses to deglutition center in the medulla oblongata. the soft palate and uvula are pulled upwards to close off nasopharynx
|
|
|
What happens during th esophageal phase of swallowing?
|
bolus moves down the esophagus to the stomach by peristalsis and the esophageal sphincter opens into the stomach
|
|
|
Define peristalsis
|
waves of contraction
|
|
|
What regulates the squirting of chyme into the duodenum?
|
regulating gastric emptying
|
|
|
define enterogastric reflex
|
a reflex that utilizes the vagus nerve and inhibits the PNS and stimulates the SNS to slow down gastric motility
|
|
|
What are 3 hormones that are produced in response to the enterogastric reflex?
|
1. Secretin
2. CCK 3. GIP |
|
|
What is secretin's role in the enterogastric reflex?
|
to inhibit parietal cells and G cells and gastric juices
|
|
|
What is CCK's role in the enterogastric reflex?
|
to inhibit gastric emptying and inhibit secretion of hydrochloric acid
|
|
|
What is GIP's role in the enterogastric reflex?
|
to inhibit the production of gastric juices and to reduce gastric motility
|
|
|
How long does it take for a meal to leave the body?
|
2-4 hours
|
|
|
What are the 2 different waves during the peristalsis of the duodenum of the small intestine?
|
1. mixing waves
2. migration waves |
|
|
what does peristaltic rush result in?
|
diarrhea
|
|
|
Mixing waves churn food with secretions from the ____,_____,____, and ____
|
gallbladder
wall of duodenum liver pancreas |
|
|
how do mixing waves make food available for absorption?
|
by moving the food up against the wall of the small intestine
|
|
|
When do migration waves begin?
|
after most food has been absorbed
|
|
|
What increases and what decreases migration waves in the small intestine?
|
PNS increases and SNS decreases speed
|
|
|
What is absorbed in the large intestine?
|
more water and electrolytes
|
|
|
What is the colon able to be used as?
|
a place to store material for a while before on through the tract
|
|
|
Which nerve fibers are in the wall of the rectum and what are they used for?
|
PNS nerve fibers are used for defication reflex
|
|
|
What happens during chemical digestion (in short)?
|
the digestive system breaks chemical bonds into building blocks that can be absorbed
|
|
|
What does salivary amylase break down?
|
breaks down starch to maltose
|
|
|
where does lingual lipase work in the body?
|
the stomach
|
|
|
Why does salivary amylase stop working in the stomach?
|
because of the low pH. it can't tolerate it.
|
|
|
Which chemical is used in the stomach to break down proteins?
|
pepsinogen
|
|
|
define pepsin
|
proteolytic enzyme
|
|
|
what does gastric lipase break down?
|
buttermilk fat
|
|
|
what does pepsin require to do its job?
|
acid
|
|
|
Define rennin
|
enzyme that causes milk to curd and slows down the movement of milk to the small intestine
|
|
|
what is the principal site of chemical digestion?
|
duodenum
|
|
|
What "asks" bile to come into the duodenum?
|
Secretin and CCK
|
|
|
what is the only significant fat-digesting enzyme that you have?
|
pancreatic lipase
|
|
|
What does pancreatic lipase break back down to?
|
fatty acids and glycerol
|
|
|
what does pancreatic amylase break down?
|
starch to maltose
|
|
|
what enzyme activates trypsinogen?
|
enterokinase (also called enteropeptidase)
|
|
|
What activates chymotrypsinogen?
|
trypsin
|
|
|
When activated by trypsin, what does procarboxypolypeptidease make?
|
carboxypolypeptidase
|
|
|
Protein is activated by what to make what?
|
trypsin to make peptides and polypeptides
|
|
|
small Proteins are activated by what to make what?
|
chymotrypsin to make peptides
|
|
|
peptides are activated by what to make what?
|
carboxyl to make smaller peptides and amino acids
|
|
|
What does peptidase break down?
|
peptides into amino acids and smaller peptides
|
|
|
what does dipeptidase break down?
|
small peptides to amino acids
|
|
|
what does sucrase break down?
|
sucrose to glucose and fructose
|
|
|
what does maltase break down?
|
maltose to glucose and glucose
|
|
|
what does lactase break down?
|
lactose to glucose and galactose
|
|
|
is there any absorption of nutrients in the mouth?
|
NO
|
|
|
is there any absorption of nutrients in the pharynx and esophagus?
|
NO
|
|
|
is there any absorption of nutrients in the stomach?
|
yes, but very little
|
|
|
What is absorbed in the stomach?
|
1. water
2. electrolyte 3. alcohol 4. some drugs |
|
|
What is the principal site of absorption within the small intestine?
|
villi
|
|
|
what are the 3 forms of transport mechanisms in the small intestine?
|
1. diffusion
2. osmosis 3. facilitated diffusion 4. active transport |
|
|
how are monosaccharides absorbed?
|
they move from the lumen of the small intestine by active transport or diffusion
|
|
|
what type of transport mechanism do glucose and galactose utilize?
|
active transport
|
|
|
what is another word for cellulose?
|
fiber
|
|
|
What are amino acids' transport mechanism?
|
active transport
|
|
|
where are amino acids absorbed?
|
in the jejunum and duodenum
|
|
|
What are lipids' transport mechanism?
|
simple diffusion
|
|
|
Define chylomicron
|
globule of fat with thin protein coating.
|
|
|
What is is that assists in lipid diffusion?
|
lacteal
|
|
|
is lipid transported in blood or lymph?
|
lymph
|
|
|
What do you need to get fat globules to lacteal?
|
bile salts
|
|
|
what are electrolytes' transport mechanism?
|
active transport mechanism
|
|
|
where are electrolytes absorbed in the small intestine?
|
the duodenum and jejunum
|
|
|
Which ions do electrolytes follow?
|
sodium ions
|
|
|
What type of transport does potassium use?
|
passive transport
|
|
|
What type of transport mechanism do calcium ions use?
|
active transport
|
|
|
What are 2 hormones that are involved in the active transport of calcium ions?
|
1. parathyroid hormone
2. calcitriol |
|
|
What type of transport mechanism does iron use?
|
active transport
|
|
|
What does vitamin B12 need for absorption?
|
intrinsic factor
|
|
|
where is most water absorbed in the GI tract?
|
the small intestine
|
|
|
What does it mean if someone is lactose intolerant?
|
they can't break down lactose to glucose and galactose because they can't produce lactase
|
|
|
What can the large intestine absorb?
|
Vitamins, water, and electrolytes
|
|
|
What vitamin do bacteria produce?
|
Vitamin K
|
|
|
When was the CG 1st tasked with environmental protection duties?
|
When Congress created a timber reserve for the Navy in 1822
EPME Study Guide p.297 |
|
|
WHat are the 2 principal hormones that drive the hypothalamus?
|
1. gherlin
2. leptin |
|
|
Say who produces Gherlin and what it stimulates
|
1. the stomach
2. stimulates sensation of huger |
|
|
Say who produces leptin and what it stimulates
|
1. adipose tissue
2. stimulates sensation of satiety |
|
|
Trace the steps that are taken when you eat fat to when you feel full
|
1. eat fat
2. adipose tissue 3. adipocyte 4. secrete leptin 5. hypothalamus 6. neurons in satiety center 7. "i'm full" |
|
|
what steps are taken after the hypothalamus secretes GnRF?
|
1. anterior pituitary
2. FSH and LH |
|
|
Where does FSH go in females?
|
to the ovary telling it to make estrogen
|
|
|
When you make bonds, you _____ energy
|
store
|
|
|
when you break bonds, you ______ energy
|
release
|
|
|
Define enzyme
|
organic catalyst that works on substrates
|
|
|
What are enzymes a type of?
|
protein
|
|
|
Define cofactor
|
non-protein portion of an enzyme
|
|
|
Define Coenzyme
|
Help enzymes do their job but aren't part of the enzyme
|
|
|
Name the 3 coenzymes talked about in class
|
1. CoA
2. NAD 3. FAD |
|
|
What is the chemical reaction when using ATP?
|
ATP-->ADP + Pi + energy
|
|
|
What is the chemical reaction when you are making ATP?
|
ADP + Pi + energy--> ATP
|
|
|
Define Entropy
|
All things left on own go to maximum disorder
|
|
|
Define Cellular Respiration
|
glucose catabolism utilizing oxygen as the final electron acceptor
|
|
|
Give the chemical reaction formula for cellular respiration
|
glucose+oxygen+2ATP-->CO2+water+38ATP
|
|
|
What does oxidation mean?
|
an electron is being taken off
|
|
|
What does reduction mean?
|
an electron is being picked up
|
|
|
Explain what He- means
|
it is an electron that's given off in the company of a hydrogen
|
|
|
what is used to take acetyl to oxaloacetic acid?
|
CoA
|
|
|
what do axaloacetic acid and acetyl combine to give off?
|
citric acid
|
|
|
the electron transport is made up of electron _____ that can take the ____ and convert it to____
|
1. acceptors
2. He- 3. ATP |
|
|
what is Pi?
|
organic phosphate
|
|
|
What does cellular respiration yield in the end?
|
CO2, H2O, and ATP
|
|
|
what is the yield of glycolysis?
|
2 ATP and 3 carbon molecule
|
|
|
where does the krebs cycle occur in the cell?
|
mitochondria
|
|
|
What creates the citric acid in aerobic cellular respiration?
|
the combination of acetyl and oxaloacetic acid in the krebs cycle
|
|
|
What gives off the CO2 in cellular respiration?
|
as citric acid returns to oxaloacetic acid, CO2 is given off on the way
|
|
|
When the glucose gets to the pyruvic acid in anaerobic cellular respiration, what happens?
|
oxygen isn't available so pyruvic acid gets converted into lactic acd
|
|
|
What do you end with in anaerobic cellular respiration?
|
2 molecules of pyruvic acid and 2 molecules of lactic acid
|
|
|
Where is the only place that you get ATP form in anaerobic cellular respiration?
|
glycolysis
|
|
|
What are the 3 monosaccharides?
|
1. glucose
2. fructose 3. galactose |
|
|
Where are all of the monosaccharides brought to after being absorbed?
|
the liver
|
|
|
What are the monosaccharides converted to when in the liver?
|
to glucose
|
|
|
Define Glycogenesis
|
the formation of glycogen
|
|
|
If you are not in need of carbohydrates at the moment then how will they be stored?
|
as glycogen
|
|
|
Where is glycogen stored in the body?
|
in skeletal muscle fibers and the liver
|
|
|
What hormone stimulates glycogenesis?
|
insulin
|
|
|
Define Glycogenolysis
|
breakdown of glycogen to glucose
|
|
|
What stimulates glycogenolysis?
|
glucagon
|
|
|
Define Gluconeogenesis
|
formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources (protein or fat)
|
|
|
What must fat be broken down to?
|
glycerol and fatty acids
|
|
|
After gluconeogenesis, glycerol gets broken down to _____ 3 _____ inside the ______.
|
1. glyceraldehyde
2. phosphate 3. liver |
|
|
What is the use of glycerol after gluconeogenesis?
|
to make glucose
|
|
|
what is fatty acid made into by beta oxidation?
|
2 carbon fragments
|
|
|
What happens to the deaminated amino acid when it is being metabolized?
|
it makes pyruvic acid
|
|
|
What does gluconeogenesis do to blood glucose levels?
|
increases the levels
|
|
|
What is the principal hormone used for metabolism of fat and proteins?
|
cortisol
|
|
|
What is cortisol an example of?
|
glucocorticoids
|
|
|
What secretes cortisol (a structure)?
|
adrenal cortex
|
|
|
how does cortisol work on fats/proteins?
|
by stimulating the breakdown of fat and protein to building block form
|
|
|
Name 4 hormones that stimulate gluconeogenesis
|
1. thyroxine
2. epinephrine 3. growth hormone 4. glucagon |
|
|
WHat are lipids broken down into?
|
fatty acids and glycerol
|
|
|
How is a lipid made water soluble?
|
by coating the lipid with protein to make a lipoprotein
|
|
|
How are the lipoproteins divided into separate categories?
|
based on density
|
|
|
Define Chylomicron
|
made in epithelial cells of the villi in the small intestine. it contains exogenous fat.
|
|
|
What is exogenous fat?
|
dietary fat
|
|
|
Where are chylomicrons stored?
|
in adipose tissue
|
|
|
What makes the fat in Very Low Density Lipoproteins?
|
hepatocytes from excess glucose or protein.
|
|
|
what is endogenous fat?
|
fat that your body makes
|
|
|
What is the function of VLDLs?
|
to transport triglycerides from the liver to adipose tissue
|
|
|
Give the percentages of the following in Low density lipoproteins: cholesterol, protein, fat
|
1. 50%
2. 25% 3. 25% |
|
|
What is the function of LDL?
|
to transport cholesterol to the body cells to use in anabolism
|
|
|
What happens when LDLs are found in excess in your body?
|
they are deposited in and around smooth muscle fibers in walls of arteries to create plaque:/
|
|
|
How much of HDL is made of proteins?
|
45%
|
|
|
How much of HDL is made of cholesterol?
|
20%
|
|
|
What is the function of high density lipoproteins?
|
to remove excess cholesterol from body cells and transport cholesterol back to the liver so it can be excreted
|
|
|
Define cholesterol
|
a fat made by the liver
|
|
|
Define Lipolysis
|
the breakdown of fat
|
|
|
Why is it necessary for lipolysis to occur?
|
so you can make energy/ATP
|
|
|
what are the 2 routes that lipolysis can take after fatty acids are converted into beta oxidation?
|
1. 2 carbon fragment
2. ketogenesis |
|
|
Glycerol-->_______ __ ________-->gluconeogenesis
|
glycerolaldehyde 3 phosphate
|
|
|
What are the ketones?
|
Keto acid and acetone
|
|
|
Where is secretin made?
|
in the duodenum
|
|
|
Where is CCK made?
|
in the duodenum
|
|
|
What 2 hormones stimulate the increase of blood glucose levels?
|
1. glucagon
2. cortisol |
|
|
Define lipogenesis
|
lipid anabolism
|
|
|
What are we making fat from if lipogenesis is occurring?
|
excess glucose or excess amino acids
|
|
|
during lipogenesis what does the excess glucose get broken down to?
|
G3P to glycerol
|
|
|
What transports triglycerides to adipose tissue?
|
VLDLs
|
|
|
What is the function of lipogenesis?
|
to reduce blood glucose levels
|
|
|
Which hormone stimulates lipgenesis?
|
insulin
|
|
|
How is protein broken down during lipogenesis?
|
breaks down to amino acids and then gets its amine group taken aaway
|
|
|
Where are all proteins transferred to after they have been broken down to amino acids?
|
the liver
|
|
|
Where does deamination occur?
|
the liver
|
|
|
What are the 2 options for deaminated protein to be used for?
|
1. to make ATP at the liver
2. be used in gluconeogenesis(to make glucose) |
|
|
Define transamination
|
converting one amino acid to another kind of amino acid
|
|
|
What does it mean if something is a non-essential amino acid?
|
means that your liver makes it by transamination so you don't have to include it in your diet
|
|
|
What are the 6 important hormones of metabolism?
|
1. insulin
2. glucagon 3. growth hormone 4. glucocorticoids 5. epinephrine/norepinephrine 6. thyroxine |
|
|
Which cells make insulin?
|
beta cells
|
|
|
What is the function of insulin?
|
to decrease blood glucose levels
|
|
|
What does insulin stimulate in order to lower blood glucose levels?
|
1. glycogenesis
2. lipogenesis |
|
|
What does insulin inhibit in order to lower blood glucose levels?
|
1. glycolysis
2. gluconeogenesis 3. lipolysis 4. ketogenesis |
|
|
How does insulin stimulate protein synthesis?
|
1. it increases cellular uptake of amino acids
2. it activates potassium pump |
|
|
Which cells make glucagon?
|
alpha cells of the pancreas
|
|
|
what does glucagon stimulate in order to increase blood glucose levels?
|
1. gluconeogenesis
2. glycolysis 3. lipolysis 4. ketogenesis |
|
|
what does glucagon inhibit in order to increase glucose levels in the blood?
|
1. glycogenesis
2. cellular uptake of glucose |
|
|
what structure makes growth hormone?
|
anterior pituitary
|
|
|
what does growth hormone stimulate?
|
1. lipolysis
2. ketogenesis 3. gluconeogenesis 4. protein synthesis |
|
|
What do glucocorticoids stimulate?
|
gluconeogenesis
|
|
|
What is the principal glucocorticoid hormone?
|
cortisol
|
|
|
when is cortisol scereted (3)?
|
1. exercise
2. stress 3. fasting |
|
|
cortisol_____protein synthesis
|
inhibits
|
|
|
Who makes epinephrine?
|
adrenal medulla
|
|
|
What does epinephrine do to glucose levels in the blood?
|
increases them
|
|
|
What does epinephrine stimulate?
|
1. gluconeogenesis
2. glycolysis |
|
|
Who makes thyroxine?
|
thyroid gland
|
|
|
What is the function of thyroxine?
|
to regulate the rate of cellular respiration in all of your cells
|
|
|
thyroxine _____protein synthesis
|
stimulates
|
|
|
thyroxine regulates _______ utilization
|
glucose
|
|
|
Nutrient requirements of any cell depends on the _________ that the cell is capable of producing?
|
enzymes
|
|
|
What are the 5 metabolic components?
|
1. liver
2. adipose tissue 3. skeletal tissue 4. neural tissue 5. peripheral tissue |
|
|
which organ is the focal point for all metabolism?
|
liver
|
|
|
What is the liver capable of breaking down?
|
Any carbohydrate, lipid, or amino acid in the body
|
|
|
what does skeletal muscle store?
|
glycogen
|
|
|
what does skeletal muscle make ATP from?
|
glucose, glycogen, protein from it's own muscle fibers
|
|
|
Neural tissue must have a continual supply of _______because is has no _____ ________
|
1. glucose
2. stored reserves |
|
|
Peripheral tissue is capable of utilizing _____, ___ _____, or other substances to make ATP
|
glucose, fatty acids
|
|
|
When is your body in the absorptive state?
|
when you have recently eaten
|
|
|
when is the body in the postabsorptive state?
|
when there is nothing in the stomach to absorb
|
|
|
About how long does a typical meal take to be absorbed?
|
4 hours
|
|
|
glucose and triglycerides are _(high/low)_ during the absorptive state
|
high
|
|
|
insulin levels are _____er to ______er glucose levels
|
high; low
|
|
|
what does the liver convert excess glucose to?
|
triglycerides or glycogen
|
|
|
What does the liver use the amino acids to make if the amino acid levels are high?
|
plasma proteins or they will undergo deamination to be converted to fat
|
|
|
which components are made in response to insulin production?
|
1. glycogen
2. triglycerides |
|
|
What should your blood glucose level be?
|
70-110 mg/100 ml blood
|
|
|
red blood cells are able to produce ATP ______
|
aerobically
|
|
|
what happens to insulin production during the post absorptive stat?
|
they go down.
|
|
|
When you are using glucose sparingly (in the body) which cells get the glucose first?
|
neural tissue and RBCs
|
|
|
what prevents glucose from moving into any cells except for neural tissue and RBCs?
|
glucagon
|
|
|
During the oxidation of fatty acids, what is used to make ATP?
|
acetyl
|
|
|
Which cells are also being used to make ATP during the oxidation of amino acids?
|
hepatocytes
|
|
|
During the oxidation of glycogen, what are used to make ATP?
|
skeletal muscle fibers
|
|
|
As glucose goes down, what happens to insulin?
|
it goes down
|
|
|
as glucose goes down, what happens to glucagon?
|
it goes up
|
|
|
Define Anti-insulin hormone
|
a hormone that functions in post absorption and its effects are opposite of insulin
|
|
|
Name 3 Anti-insulin hormones
|
1. glucagon
2. cortisol 3. epinephrine |
|
|
What is the principal function of glucagon?
|
to break down glycogen
|
|
|
Where are the receptors for glucose found in the body?
|
in the hypothalamus
|
|
|
Which nervous system controls the hypothalamus?
|
sympathetic nervous system
|
|
|
What term is used for "no food for days"
|
fasting
|
|
|
what term is used for "no food for weeks"
|
starvation
|
|
|
what determines how long you can go without food?
|
the amount of adipose tissue you have
|
|
|
what happens to blood glucose levels during starvation?
|
they drop drastically
|
|
|
what happens to insulin during starvation?
|
it isn't present
|
|
|
by the second day of starvation what happens to fatty acids?
|
increase 4x
|
|
|
by the second day of starvation what happens to blood glucose level?
|
it goes down to about 65 mg glucose/100 ml blood
|
|
|
What happens to the ketones during starvation?
|
they build up so that pH goes down and ketacidosis occurs
|
