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388 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
co2 pressure
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primary determinant of respiration
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perfusion
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sending blood to vessel, where low CO2 gets O2 blood
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lymph vessels are
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leakier than blood vessels
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in pulmonary circuit
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high CO2 gets O2 and blood
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O2 determines
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perfusions
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CO2 determines
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ventilation
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lymphatic vessels
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start in tissue
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respiratory restrictive disease
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lung can't comply and distend, lung is stiffened everywhere
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respiratory obstructive disease
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takes longer to breathe, due to obstruction or narrowing
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vital capacity
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all air you can willfully move
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inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
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amount you dont use or inspire when at rest
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tidal volume
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amount exhaled inhaled during quiet ventilation at rest
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movement of lymph caused by
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pulsation of arteries
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superficial lymphatic vessels run
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with veins
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deep lymphatic vessels run
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with arteries
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lymph nodes
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4 ways in, 2 ways out (4 afferent are going in, and 2 efferent exits)
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b cells, plasma cells, t cells
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are in lymph nodes
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germinal center
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multiplying b cells
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medulla
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macrophages and plasma cells
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spleen
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like a lymph node but instead of being in line with lymphatic system it is in line WITH THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM receiving blood
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spleen contents flow to
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liver
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macrophages in spleen
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remove old blood cells
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spleen has thin fibrous capsule
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fragile
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everything below diaphragm and also above the diaphragm to the RIGHT of the midline
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thoracic duct
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everything to the right of the midline above the diaphragm
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uses right lymphatic duct
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first job of lymphatic system to
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return interstitial fluid and proteins back to circulatory system
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second job of lymphatic system is to
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house portions of the immune system
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palatine and lingual tonsils are made of
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Non-keratinized stratified squamous
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third job of lymphatic system is to
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absorb dietary fats from the small intestine
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thoracic duct (lymphatic system)
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thoracis duct begins at vertebrae T-12 at the Cisterna Chyli
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thoracic duct flows anterior to
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vertebral column
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thoracic duct dumps its contents
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at left side where jugular vein and left subclavian artery come together, draining all lymphatic tissue below the diaphragm
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lymphatic ducts - trunks
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2 lumbar trunks, 2 medastinal trunks, 2 intestinal trunks
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above the diaphragm, thoracic duct only handles
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left arm left thorax and left side of face
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below the diaphragm
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thoracic duct
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immune system
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a diffuse organ system
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immune system components are
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cells and plasma proteins and organs
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a few parts of immune system belong to
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integumentary or digestive system
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job of immune system
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resistance to INFECTIOUS disease and NEOPLASTIC diseases (cancers), no degenerative disease
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innate immune system
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generalized defense
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adaptive immune system
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highly selective
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tonsils
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oval-shaped masses of lymphatic tissue (concentrations of lymphocytes and macrophages) strategically located to defend the body against bacteria and viruses entering the body through the mouth or nose
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humoral portion
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part of adaptive immune system
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innate defenses are divided into:
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surface barriers and INTERNAL DEFENSES
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Dendritic cells engulf
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exogenous pathogens, such as bacteria, parasites or toxins in the tissues and then migrate, via chemotactic signals, to the T cell enriched lymph nodes
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internal defenses
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cellular components, proteins and processes
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surface barriers of the innate immune system
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passive channel (skin)
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internal defenses of the innate immune system, INCLUDE white blood cells (WBCs) which are
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The innate leukocytes include: Natural killer cells, mast cells, eosinophils, basophils; and the phagocytic cells including macrophages, neutrophils and dendritic cells, and
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opsonizing
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is coating, the surface of the pathogen.
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negative pressure
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keeps lungs distended
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Exogenous antigens -- MHC class II -- CD4+ helper T-cells.
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Exogenous antigens are usually displayed on MHC class II molecules, which activate CD4+ helper T-cells.
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Endogenous antigens -- MHC class I molecules -- CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells.
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Endogenous antigens are typically displayed on MHC class I molecules, and activate CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells.
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All white blood cells (WBC) are known as leukocytes.
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Leukocytes are different from other cells of the body in that they are not tightly associated with a particular organ or tissue; thus, they function similar to independent, single-celled organisms.
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plasma cells
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Specialized B cells which churn out antibodies—more than two thousand per second. Most of these die after four to five days;
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With the exception of non-nucleated cells (including erythrocytes), MHC class I is expressed by all host cells.
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MHC Class 1 -- on all cells
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MHC class 2 is where?
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MHC Class 2 -- non nucleated erythrocytes and other cells
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erythrocytes -
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RBC red blodd cell
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leukocyte
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WBC white blood cell
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everyone has a
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type 1 MHC
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monocytes
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Large, agranular leukocytes with relatively small, eccentric, oval or kidney-shaped nuclei.
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type 1 MHC
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endogenous
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type 1 MHC
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CD8 Cells - type 1 times 8
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In order to kill, CD8 cells need to be
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stimulated and co-stimulated
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Antigen presenting cells
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wont get killed by CD8 Tc cytotoxic cells if they dont co-stimulate
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helper T cells
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CD4
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2 types helper T cells
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Helper t cells one and TWO. type one is really Cytotoxic T cells Tc, and Type TWO is regular helper T cells aka beta cells
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type one helper t cells
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endogenous
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type two helper t cells
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exogenous
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phagocytosis
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invariate chain
|
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invariate chain purpose
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prevent class 2 MHC from binding endogenous proteins in endoplasmic reticulum
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phago lysosome can
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remove invariate chain
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positive selection
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making sure T-cells bind to MHC of your body
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negative selection
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the only type of selection for B cells
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t cells
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these cells leave the marrow at an early age and travel to the thymus, where they mature. Here they are imprinted with critical information for recognizing “self” and “non-self” substances.
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b cells
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B cells spend their entire early life in the bone marrow. Upon maturity, their job is to travel throughout the blood and lymph looking for antigens with which they can interlock.
Once a B cell has identified an antigen, it starts replicating itself. These cloned cells mature into antibody-manufacturing plasma cells. |
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b cells
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is presented antigens and b cell is eliminated if it reacts to antigens
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dendritic cells
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Mostly found in the skin and mucosal epithelium, where they are referred to as Langerhan's cells. Unlike macrophages, dendritic cells can also recognize viral particles as non-self. In addition, they can present antigens via both MHC I and MHC II, and can thus activate both CD8 and CD4 T cells, directly.
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clonal selection
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how the immune system responds to infection and how certain types of B and T lymphocytes are selected for destruction of specific antigens invading the body.
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memory cells
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Specialized B cells which grant the body the ability to manufacture more of a particular antibody as needed, in case a particular antigen is ever encountered again.
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macrophage
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Literally, “large eaters.” These are large, long-lived phagocytes which capture foreign cells, digest them, and present protein fragments (peptides) from these cells and manifest them on their exterior. In this manner, they present the antigens to the T cells.
Macrophages are strategically located in lymphoid tissues, connective tissues and body cavities, where they are likely to encounter antigens. They also act as effector cells in cell-mediated immunity. |
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clonal selection's effect on b and t cells
|
Clonal selection is an important immunological process that determines which B and T lymphocytes, types of white blood cells, will be produced in large quantities.
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t and b cells are the
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the lymphocytes of the adaptive immune system.
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clonal selection works by
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clonal expansion. You only have one cell to begin with that recognizes a given pathogen, but once that cell sees the pathogen it is able to recognize, it rapidly divides, producing thousands of copies of itself. Quite literally, the cell clones itself, expanding the population of lymphocytes able to fight the infection: hence, clonal expansion.
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|
why does clonal selection work
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The T's were able to clonally expand because they were the only cells that were able to "see" that pathogen because of their unique receptor
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antigen-presenting cells
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Cells which do not have antigen-specific receptors. Instead, they capture and process antigens, present them to T cell receptors. These cells include macrophages, dentritic cells and B cells.
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|
two types of human immunity
|
The human immune system is divided into two main parts: humoral immunity, which deals with infectious agents in the blood and body tissues, and cell-mediated immunity, which deals with body cells that have been infected.
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humoral system is managed by
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B-cells
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cell-mediated system is managed by
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T-cells
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The humoral system of immunity is also called the
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antibody-mediated system because of its use of specific immune-system structures called antibodies.
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Antibodies (or immunoglobulin, Ig), are
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large Y-shaped proteins used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects
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In mammals there are five types of antibodies
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IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM
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macrophages digest the infectious agent and then
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display some of its components on their surfaces.
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most innate immune leukocytes cannot divide or reproduce on their own, but are
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the products of multipotent hematopoietic stem cells present in the bone marrow
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displays from macrophages are recognized by
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helper-T cells, which activate their immune response, and multiply rapidly. This is called the activation phase.
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Natural killer cells, mast cells, eosinophils, basophils; and the phagocytic cells including macrophages, neutrophils and dendritic cells
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innate leukocytes
|
|
after the activation phase is the effector phase, which is when:
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The next phase, called the effector phase, involves a communication between helper-T cells and B-cells. Activated helper-T cells use chemical signals to contact B-cells, which then begin to multiply rapidly as well. B-cell descendants become either plasma cells or B memory cells. The plasma cells begin to manufacture huge quantities of antibodies that will bind to the foreign invader (the antigen) and prime it for destruction. B memory cells retain a "memory" of the specific antigen that can be used to mobilize the immune system faster if the body encounters the antigen later in life.
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negative selection is important because
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negative selection is important as it eliminates cells that might otherwise mount an autoimmune attack. It is one of the ways in which tolerance to self antigens is achieved.
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A response to an agent against which the body has already formed memory cells is called a
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secondary response.
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Clonal selection operates among the B and T cells of the immune system to
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select for replication only those that respond to a particular antigen.
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antibody that crosses placental barrier
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IGG
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iGM
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initial
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iGM
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pentamers
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antibody of secretions
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IGA
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IGA
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helps your ability to produce mucosal SECRETIONS
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IGD
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the immunoglobulin of B cell surfaces
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IGG
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most abundant immunoglobulin of immune response
|
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iGA
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mother's milk
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IGG and IGM
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can combine compliment
|
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residual volume
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amount of air that REMAINS after exhaled ERV (after expiratory reserve volume is gone)
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IGM size is
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the largest
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IGA
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can be a monomer or dimer
|
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IGA
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antibody of secretions, reinforce EPITHELIAL MUCOSAL BARRIER
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breast feeding
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passive
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IGD
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the immunogblobulin of the B cell surfaces
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IGD
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brought into B cell by phagocytosis-like process
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IGG
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most abundant of later primary immune response and secondary immune response
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IGM
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the initial antibody
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IGG and IGM
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seen in some Type 2 hypersensitivity reactions and all Type 3 hypersensitivity reactions
|
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IGD immunoglobulins
|
plant themselves on B cell surfaces and wait to be stimulated by antigens
|
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When activated, mast cells rapidly release
|
granules, rich in histamine and heparin, etc
|
|
ACTIVE HUMORAL IMMUNITY
|
Active humoral immunity is the development of antibodies in response to stimulation by an antigen.
|
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Once inside the cell, the invading pathogen is contained inside an endosome
|
which merges with a lysosome.
|
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With active immunity,
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antigens enter the body and the body responds by making its own antibodies and B-memory cells
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Both passive and active immunity can be
|
either naturally or artificially acquired.
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In passive immunity,
|
antibodies made in another person or animal enter the body and the immunity is short-lived.
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Neutrophils, along with two other cell types; eosinophils and basophils (see below), are known as
|
granulocytes due to the presence of granules in their cytoplasm.
|
|
due to their distinctive lobed nuclei, NEUTROPHILS ARE:
|
polymorphonuclear cells
|
|
50 to 60% of the total circulating leukocytes
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ARE NEUTROPHILS
|
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passive, artificially aquired immunity
|
antibodies made outside or in someone else's body, placed in your body
|
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active, artificially aquired immunity
|
you get vaccinated and your body makes its own antibodies responding to the threat
|
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basophils
|
can cause type 1 hypersensitivity reaction
|
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basophils fight by
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degranulation
|
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IGE
|
reagent when part of type 1 hypersensitivity reaction
|
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IGE
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stimulates basophils
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Basophils jobs are to
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AMPLIFY IMMUNE RESPONSE
|
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BASOPHILS INCREASE THE NUMBER OF
|
eosinophils
|
|
Respiratory system is a physiological:
|
buffer that helps avoid radical swings in pH in the face of swings in hydrogen ion concentration
|
|
a buffer can absorb or release hydrogen as needed
|
as a pH stabilizer
|
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pH is important to regulate because
|
our enzymes are pH specific and can become denatured
|
|
IGE
|
released by basophils
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Basophils degranulate and release histamines which are
|
inflammatory agents
|
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microglia are
|
the main resident immunological cells and macrophages of the CNS.
|
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upper respiratory
|
in your head, sneeze if irritated, larynx and above
|
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lower respiratory
|
trachea and below
|
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CONDUCTING ZONE
|
MOVEMENT OF AIR
|
|
RESPIRATORY ZONE
|
GAS EXCHANGE
|
|
dead space
|
Anatomical dead space is that portion of the airways (such as the mouth and trachea) which conducts gas to the alveoli.
|
|
Eosinophils
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Eosinophil: A normal type of white blood cell that has coarse granules within its cytoplasm. Eosinophils are produced in the bone marrow and migrate to tissues
|
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turbinates or nasal conchae
|
creates vibration/turbulence, humidifies because it is dripping wet,.....covered in irrigated mucosa
|
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turbinates or conchae
|
warm the air coming in
|
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An antibody is made up of
|
two heavy chains and two light chains. The unique variable region allows an antibody to recognize its matching antigen
|
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columnar pseudostratified ciliated epithelium
|
respiratory tract
|
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lymphocytes, monocytes, and macrophages
|
can be AGRANULAR OR lacking granules
|
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neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils
|
three types of granulocytes
|
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T cells are useless without
|
T cells are useless without antigen-presenting cells to activate them, and B cells are crippled without T-cell help.
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eosinophils make up
|
1–4% of leukocytes
|
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larynx
|
columnar epithelium
|
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larynx is
|
largest purest cartilaginous organ
|
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epiglottis
|
elastic cartilage
|
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basophils
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1% of leukocytes
|
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below the larynx is the
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trachea
|
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hyoid bone
|
allows speaking
|
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larynx
|
houses voice box
|
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behind arythmoid cartilage
|
are the vocal folds
|
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vocalized sounds come from
|
voice box uhh eeeh oooh
|
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articulated sounds come from
|
the mouth lips, like consonants
|
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trachea
|
C-shaped cartilage so one side can stretch when food (bolus) passes
|
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monocytes have a
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kidney bean shaped nucleus
|
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monocytes make up
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2-8% of leukocytes
|
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carina
|
looks like little underwear (bifurcation)
|
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monocytes can develop into
|
macrophages later
|
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lymphocytes have nuclei that
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are very large and take up most of the space
|
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lymphocytes make up
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25-33% of leukocytes in blood
|
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main stem > lobar > segmental
|
bronchus order
|
|
10 segmentals on right side, less than 10 segmentals on the left
|
number of segmentals
|
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monocytes do not phagocytize until they become
|
macrophages
|
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basement membrane in between epithelial cells
|
in respiratory system... no connective tissue
|
|
2 forces that can make your lungs collapse
|
elastic fibers and surface tension (of water and alveoli), the latter of which is stronger
|
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microglia used to be
|
monocytes
|
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80% of pressure is
|
nitrogen
|
|
20% of gas pressure is
|
oxygen
|
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type 2 alveolar cells
|
produce surfactant
|
|
henry's law:
|
solubility of gas is dependent on pressure behind that gas and the amount of liquid it wil dissolve in
|
|
partial pressure
|
the pressure which the gas would have if it alone occupied the volume.[1] The total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of each individual gas in the mixture.
|
|
not much CO2
|
in our atmosphere
|
|
TWO sulchi (or sulchus) in
|
right lung
|
|
One sulchus (or fissure) in left lung
|
left lung
|
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hemoglobin - carries one oxygen molecule in each of its four
|
HEME
|
|
97% of O2 is carried by
|
hemoglobin.
|
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Only 3 percent of O2 carried as
|
"free", diffused gas in blood plasma
|
|
neutrophils are a type of
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myelocyte
|
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leukocytes are divided into
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myelocytes and lymphocytes
|
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NK (natural killer) cells
|
are part of NONSPECIFIC, innate immune system
|
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NK cells are the
|
lymphocytes of the immune system
|
|
somatic recombination
|
somatic recombination, is a mechanism of genetic recombination in the early stages of immunoglobulin (Ig) and T cell receptors (TCR) production of the immune system.
|
|
Classical pathway
|
used compliment proteins
|
|
The product of somatic recombination
|
Functional antibody genes...............Somatic recombination is the method by which functional antibody genes are created. It involves the rearrangement of many gene segments that code for the heavy and light chain proteins of immunoglobulins, and it only occurs in lymphocytes.
|
|
diapedesis
|
the movement of white blood cells, through intact capillary walls into surrounding interstitial space outside.
|
|
diaphragm
|
prime mover of ventilation
|
|
In order for leukocytes to perform phagocytosis, they have to leave the bloodstream by
|
diapedesis
|
|
interferons are part of the
|
innate immune system
|
|
leukocytosis
|
"long distance"
|
|
diaphragm
|
dome-shaped, has a central tendon, fibers run in a radial direction, fibers flatten when contracting the diaphragm, increasing volume of lungs
|
|
external intercostal muscles
|
makes chest/lungs WIDER and bigger outward
|
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beta cells
|
become the giant lymphocytes known as plasma cells
|
|
beta cells secrete
|
thousands of antibodies
|
|
internal intercostals
|
pull ribcage INWARD and close the ribs
|
|
exhale with the
|
exhale with the internal intercostals
|
|
inhale with the
|
inhale with the external intercostals
|
|
interferon comes in 3 types
|
alpha, beta and gamma interferons
|
|
RECEIVERS OF INTERFERONS
|
TEMPORARILY ARE UNABLE TO REPRODUCE
|
|
classical pathway uses
|
antibodies
|
|
IGM and IGG help to
|
"fix" complement
|
|
type 2 and 3 hypersensitivity
|
IGG and IGM
|
|
type 3 hypersensitivity reaction
|
has to do with complement
|
|
hemoglobin is a quaternary protein which means
|
it is made up of individual protein chains
|
|
rectus abdominus
|
pull down on the ribcage - helping to exhale
|
|
transverse abdominus
|
increases interabdominal pressure by pushing up on the diaphragm
|
|
CD8 are the most
|
abundant lymphocytes
|
|
NK cells are a type
|
of small lymphocyte
|
|
Margination
|
accumulation and adhesion of leukocytes to the epithelial cells of blood vessel walls at the site of injury
in the early stages of inflammation. |
|
antibodies
|
mark things
|
|
gene
|
portion of dna that codes for complete protein
|
|
pleura
|
has visceral layer that attached to outside of the lung
|
|
pleura also has
|
parietal layer that attaches to ribcage and diaphragm
|
|
All IGMS have
|
the same constant region
|
|
type 3 hypersensitivity reaction
|
EXCESSIVE AGGLUTINATION BY ANTIBODIES
|
|
CLASS 1 MHC
|
endogenous protein
|
|
Class 2 Major Histocompatibility Complex
|
Exogenous Protein
|
|
CD8 must be both
|
stimulated and costimulated
|
|
eustachian tube function
|
equalizes pressure
|
|
turbinates conchis' moisturizing function is important because
|
brittle dry lungs cannot diffuse gas
|
|
pneumothorax
|
a problem where the visceral layer or pleura and parietal layer can separate because air got in and they got punctured.
|
|
soft palate goes up when
|
swallowing
|
|
pressure in your lungs called
|
pulmonary pressure
|
|
pressure between layers of pleura
|
interpleural pressure
|
|
transpulmonary pressure
|
the difference between pulmonary pressure and interpleural pressure
|
|
lungs and thoracic cavity connected via
|
the pleura
|
|
the are how many openings in the esophagus?
|
two openings in esophagus
|
|
left lung is
|
smaller
|
|
2 sphincters in trachea
|
upper and also the lower (the carina)
|
|
less than one mm in diameter
|
bronchiole
|
|
terminal bronchiole
|
last part of conducting zone and beginning of respiratory zone
|
|
alveolar ducts lead to
|
alveoli channels
|
|
SEPARATE 2 LAYERS IN THORACIC CAVITY
|
CAUSES NEGATIVE PRESSURE
|
|
in lungs, plaque is replaced by
|
smooth muscle
|
|
exhalation is
|
passive
|
|
inhalation is
|
active and quick
|
|
residual volume
|
amount that remains after exhaled expiratory reserve volume
|
|
O2 determines perfusion and
|
CO2 determines ventilation
|
|
Temperature down
|
shift to the left
|
|
pH down
|
shift to the right
|
|
BPG
|
shift to the right
|
|
muscles of neck are accessory muscles for
|
inhalation
|
|
muscles below are accessory for
|
exhalation
|
|
functional reserve capacity formula
|
FRV = ERV + RV
|
|
acidosis
|
A greater number of hydrogen ions are present in the blood than can be absorbed by the buffer systems.
|
|
CO2 penetrates
|
blood brain barrier easily
|
|
peripheral receptors
|
act most importantly to detect variation of the oxygen in the arterial blood, in addition to detecting arterial carbon dioxide and pH.
|
|
ERV
|
What is left to exhale after a normal tidal exhalation.
|
|
FEV1 decreases as
|
airway radius is decreased
|
|
compliance
|
ability of lung to distend
|
|
alkalosis
|
when the concentration of hydrogen ions are decreased.
|
|
apoptosis
|
collapse on itself and scramble
|
|
liver
|
makes proteins of the compliment
|
|
anterior cervica lymph nodes
|
located beneath muscle
|
|
complement fixation outcomes
|
opsonization/phagocytosis, amplifying inflammation (C3a c5a), or cell lysis
|
|
Igm igg
|
classical pathway
|
|
C3
|
pathway
|
|
T cells signalled by
|
Contact
|
|
Macrophage stimulates cd4
|
And cd4 stimulates macrophage
|
|
Classical pathway involves
|
Antibodies
|
|
Adaptive immune system
|
Cellular immunity (t cells) , humoral immunity (b cells)
|
|
Thymus gland
|
Degenerates into fat after adolescence
|
|
Thymus gland
|
Develops t cell line
|
|
T cell receptors
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TCRs (cd4 and cd8) interact with specialized receptors on all cells
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Tc
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Cd8 killer or cytotoxic t cells
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Cd4
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Amplify the immune response
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Hiv virus attacks the
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Cd4 or helper t cells
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Helper t cells type 1
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Amplify cytotoxic t cells
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Helper t cells type 2
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Amplify b cells
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Th1
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Killer t cells
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Th2
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B cells
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Helper t cells amplify
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Both innate.and adaptive immune cells
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Cd4
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Class 2 MHC
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Cd8
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MHC class 1
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Protein on outside of MHC II
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Signals to helper t cells
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Signalling cell in MHC II
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Is destroyed
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Class 1 mhc
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Has NO invariate chain
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Endogenous proteins
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MHC 1
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Cd4 cells and antigen presenting cells
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Both mutually stimulate each other in mutual amplification
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Cytotoxic t-cells
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Must be stimulated And co-stimulated in order to make perforin to perforate cells
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FAS receptors
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Cell's outer kill switch
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NK cells cause
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Apoptosis
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lymph vessels
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begin where capillary beds are, start in tissue
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lymph vessels known as right thoracic duct
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empty into superior vena cava
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superficial lymphatic vessels
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run with veins
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deep lymphatic vessels
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run with arteries
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T cells
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in transit in lymph nodes, transient
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b cells and plasma cells
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set up shop in lymph nodes
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germinal center
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b cells
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medulla
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macrophages and plasma cells
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outside germinal center
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antigen presenting cells
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axilla, cervical, inguinal
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outermost lymph nodes
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IGM:
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Expressed on the surface of B cells (monomer) and in a secreted form (pentamer) with very high avidity. Eliminates pathogens in the early stages of B cell mediated (humoral) immunity before there is sufficient IgG
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IGG:
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n its four forms, provides the majority of antibody-based immunity against invading pathogens. The only antibody capable of crossing the placenta to give passive immunity to fetus.
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IGE:
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Binds to allergens and triggers histamine release from mast cells and basophils, and is involved in allergy. Also protects against parasitic worms
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spleen
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storage area of iron, has thin fibrous capsule
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IGD:
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Functions mainly as an antigen receptor on B cells that have not been exposed to antigens. It has been shown to activate basophils and mast cells to produce antimicrobial factors
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IGA
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Found in mucosal areas, such as the gut, respiratory tract and urogenital tract, and prevents colonization by pathogens. Also found in saliva, tears, and breast milk
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unloading oxygen in internal respiration
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shape of hemoglobin changes so that it can bind hydrogen and CO2
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internal respiration
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gas exchange at systemic capillary tissue level... unloading of oxygen allows the ONLOADING of CO2...
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Most of Oxygen is transported bound to CO2
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...and 1-2% dissolved in plasma
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hemoglobin must have
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high pCO2 and low O2 tension so that arteriole opens up and allows O2 to be released by hemoglobin
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7% of CO2 is carried as
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gas in blood
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carbonic acid
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only volatile liquid acid (can turn into gas) in the blood
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two types of acidosis
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metabolic acidosis and respiratory acidosis
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two types of alkalosis
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metabolic acidosis and respiratory acidosis
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when respiratory system cannot control the amount of carbonic acid
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respiratory acidosis if too much, respiratory alkalosis if not enough
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IGG
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...is a monomer
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IGM:
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usually a pentamer
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IGA:
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DIMER
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IGE
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...is a monomer (G.E.D.)
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breath faster:
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CO2 drops
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hold your breath:
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CO2 rises
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Bohr effect
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relationship of hydrogen with hemoglobin molecule, affecting hemoglobin's ability to carry oxygen
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majority of CO2 is transported
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AS BICARBONATE AND DISSOLVED IN THE PLASMA
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If you allow bicarbonate to leak out of the blood,
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you will build up electropositivity in erythrocyte so chloride is used to balance that = CHLORIDE SHIFT
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in areas of high CO2, oxygen is released
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due to chloride shift
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bicarbonate's outflow
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is countered by chloride shift, which allows bicarbonate to leave cel without giving it a charge
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due to chloride shift
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hydrogen binds to hemoglobin, causing bohr effect, causing O2 release
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chloride shift happens in
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...systemic capillary bed
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CO2 leaves capillary, following its partial pressure gradient
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reaction to the left as CO2 leaves in alveolar air = HALDANE EFFECT
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haldane effect is:
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Deoxygenation of the blood increases its ability to carry carbon dioxide; this property is the Haldane effect. Conversely, oxygenated blood has a reduced capacity for carbon dioxide.
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haldane effect is done because of -
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co2 concentrations
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bohr effect is initiated by -
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the binding of hydrogen
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ige:
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hypersensitivity reaction type (ONE )1
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peripheral receptors and central receptors affect:
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three regulatory control centers (2 in medulla and 1 in pons) that accelerate or decelerate VENTILATION
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CHEMORECEPTORS ARE IN:
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NECK AND UPPER CHEST
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CHEMORECEPTORS ALSO SEND SIGNALS
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TO VASOMOTOR CENTERS
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central receptors:
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in brain's fourth ventricle....STIMULATED EXCLUSIVELY BY CO2, but not directly. hydrogen ions take care of stimulating central receptors with the help of carbonic acid...
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peripheral receptors:
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found at CAROTID SINUS AND AORTIC ARCH, sensitive to O2, CO2 and pH, can be stimulated by respiratory and metabolic acids
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CO2 easily goes through:
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blood brain barrier
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afferent - all in
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efferent - exit
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lymphocytes
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primary cells of lymphatic system, respond to internal&external threats
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monocytes and macrophages
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produced in red bone marrow
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tonsils
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lymphoid tissues
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spleen and thymus
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lymphoid organs
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red bone marrow
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helps lymphoid organs and tissues by making some lymphocytes of its own
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hematopoietic stem cells-
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Make both WBC's and RBC's
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humoral immunity-
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adaptive immune system
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humoral immunity-
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when things that circulating in extracellular fluids make you immune
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extracellular fluid=
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interstitial fluid, blood plasma, lymph,
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nk cells are similar to-
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t cells
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phagocytes-
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innate defenses
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phagocytes:
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myelocytes
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neutrophils numerous
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60% of WBCs
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neutrophils lumpy nucleus means
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polymorphonuclear cell
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neutrophils conduct
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phagocytosis, that is how they defend us
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neutrophils, basophils and eosoniphils are all-
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granulocytes
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granulocytes degranulate and release-
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hydrolytic enzymes to digest stuff they find
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basophils ARE A TYPE OF-
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granulocyte
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basophils ARE-
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capable of phagocytosis but their MAIN TOOL IS DEGRANULATION
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MAIN TRICK OF -EOSONIPHILS
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TO DEGRANULATE
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histamines
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react slowly
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histamines
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amplify inflammation by interacting with antibodies at receptors at the surface
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innapropriate basophil triggering of HISTAMINE RELEASE causes:
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type 1 hypersensitivity reaction
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B cells begin to express both IgM and IgD when
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when they reach maturity
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eosinophils
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bind with eosin.... eosinophils make up 2-3% of circulating WBC
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basophils
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make up 5% of circulating WBCs
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lymphocytes made in the thymus are-
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t cells
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monocytes
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are AGRANULOCYTES
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MONOCYTES LAST FOR
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A LONG TIME relative to other WBCs, monocytes stay a day longer in the blood stream circulating before they enter tissue
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eosoniphils
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FIGHT PARASITES using phagocytosis or degranulation if necessary
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granulocytes
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dont spend a lot of time circulating, only 8 hrs at most in the blood before they enter tissue
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when granulocytes leave bone they are already:
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ready to defend the body
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monocytes are made in bone
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when they leave they enter into circulation
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when monocytes get into tissue
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they grow and grow into MACROPHAGES
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neutrophils are the pawns
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giant macrophages are the rooks or bishops (more powerful) phagocytize hundreds of bacteria per minute.........................monocytes wander tissue like small tanks
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microglia only leave the blood
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ONCE
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MICROGLIA ENTER BRAIN ONCE
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AND CAN REPRODUCE IN BRAIN
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NK CELLS
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INNATE IMMUNE SYSEM
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LYMPHCYTES AND MYELOCYTES
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ARE THE TWO WBC types
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microglia
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Macrophage of the CNS
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Phagocytes
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eat destroy then present what they ate
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microglia
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a type of neuroglia, that is a tissue macrophage
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vasodilation causes
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increased perfusion of blood
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during inflammatory response
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capillary permeability is increased, so proteins like Fibrin escape
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