Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
150 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Social Psychology
|
The scientific study of the way in which individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people
|
|
Kurt Lewin
|
-Father of Modern Social Psychology
-Came with the rise in Nazism in Germany and Emigration to the US -He emphasized practical research to promote change -Came up with the Interactionist Perspection = person reacts with the situation |
|
Fundamental Attribution Error
|
-People tend to attribute behavior to characteristics of the person when it's someone else but to characteristics of the environment when talking about themselves
|
|
Altruism
|
Pure helping behavior
-EX: saving a woman you dont know in an icy cold river |
|
Sociocultural Approach to Social Psychology
|
-Each culture creates norms about how one is to think, feel, and behave
-Social norms: rules about appropriate behavior -Culture: set of beliefs, customs, habits, and language shared by people living in a particular time and place |
|
Evolutionary Approach to Social Psychology
|
-Natural Selection: thought that survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
-Survival of the Fittest: evolution of organisms best adapted to the environment -Adaptation: A change to the genotype in a way that increases an individuals fitness |
|
Social Learning Approach to Social Psychology
|
-Direct Learning: In class or parents telling us something
-Indirect Learning: Seeing someone get rewarded or punished for something -Albert Bandura's Bobo Experiment: How children knock an air filled doll after seeing adult do it |
|
Social Cognitive Approach to Social Psychology
|
-Social Cognition: The way in which people think about themselves and the social world - how they select, interpret, remember, and use social info to make judgments and decisions
|
|
Empirical Research
|
-Based on data and careful study
-Used to learn the mechanisms behind behavior, without relying on common sense or introspection |
|
Formulating Hypotheses and Theories
|
Experimental -> Correlational (tells you that 2 things are related) -> Descriptive (look at things and describe what is going on)
|
|
Descriptive Methods
|
-Researcher observes people and records measurements or impressions of their behavior
-Ex: Naturalistic Observation, Case Studies, Archival, Surveys, and Psychological Tests |
|
Naturalistic Observation
|
-Observing in a natural setting without them knowing
|
|
Case Studies
|
Study one person or one event and find out everything you can about it
|
|
Archival
|
-Get info that's already available to you - like Police Reports, etc
|
|
Surveys
|
-Ask people a lot of Q's about what you want to know
|
|
Correlations: Predicting Social Behavior
|
-Calculate the degree of association btw variables
-Goal is PREDICTION by understanding relationships btw variables |
|
Correlational Coefficients
|
-1.0 - +1.0
-Sign indicates the direction of the relationship -Positive - When both variables increase or decrease together -Negative - When A increases, B decreases --1.0 or +1.0 = perfect relationship -0.0 = no relationship |
|
3rd Variable
|
-Affects both other variables and is the reason for some correlation
|
|
Correlation is NOT Causation
|
-Because of 3rd Variables and Reverse Causation
|
|
Role of Research in Science
|
-Theory -> Test it -> Replicate it -> Accept Theory as True
|
|
Theory
|
-A set of principles that explain a set of observations
-Usually indicates specific causation -Has to be supported by data to be considered true |
|
Control
|
-Identical non-test related conditions for both groups allows us to isolate the variable of interest
|
|
Random Assignment
|
-Ensures that all extraneous variables exist evenly in both groups
-Can improve Internal Validity |
|
Random Selection
|
-Everyone in the poputlation you wish to apply your results to has an equal chance of participating in the study
-Ensures that your sample is representative of the population -Ensures External Validity |
|
External Validity
|
-Ability of a study to accurately generalize the sample to the population
|
|
Psychological Realism
|
-The extent to which the study itself makes you psychologically involved in the experiment
|
|
Hawthorne Effect
|
-People change their behavior when they know they're being studied
|
|
Independent Variable
|
-The variable that is changed to see if it has an effect on some other variable
|
|
Dependent Variable
|
-The variable measured by the researcher to see if it depends on the level of the independent variable
|
|
Between-Participants Design
|
-Looks for differences between different people
|
|
Within-Participants Design
|
-Looks for differences within the same people
-Each participant takes part in every condition of the study |
|
Mixed Model Design
|
-Has multiple factors involved - looks both within and btw participant differences depending on the factor
-Has 2 independent variables |
|
ANOVA
|
-ANalysis Of Variance
-Used to test for differences btw the means of groups of participants -Shows these differences: -Main effects: if the 2 means differ around 1 main independent variable -Interactions: involve 2 or more independent variables- try to see if the influence of one independent variable affects the 2nd ind. variable |
|
Interaction Effects
|
-Look at the effect of a particular combination of factors
|
|
Moderation
|
-One variable qualifies the relationship btw the other variables
|
|
Mediation
|
-When one variable "explains" the relationship btw the other variables
|
|
Single-Factor Experiments
|
-Have one independent variable
|
|
Factorial Design
|
-Have 2 or more independent variables
-2-way design |
|
Informed Consent
|
-Specifies the nature of the experiment and gets permission
|
|
Deception
|
-Needed to avoid "giving away" the purpose of the experiment
-Tells the participants what they're going to do, but not why |
|
Debriefing
|
-Explains everything, alleviates discomfort from the experiment, makes things right again
-When you tell them after the Deception |
|
Experience Sampling Methods (ESM)
|
-Uses signaling devices to alert participant to record their data
-Allows continuous and random data collection -Used often for attitude research, or emotions |
|
Social Cognition
|
The way we think about the world and ourselves
-Core Processes: -Attention -Interpretation -Judgment -Memory |
|
Goals Behind Social Cognition
|
-Being Accurate
-Conserving Mental Effort -Managing our self-image |
|
Schema
|
-A tool used to interpret things around us
-Used for identifying or categorizing things -Helps us decide how to interact with our environment -Keeps us from having to reinterpret the world around us constantly |
|
Heuristic
|
-A mental shortcut to help us remember things
|
|
Self Fulfilling Prophecy
|
-Have a Stereotype
-Act in a way consistent with that belief -Create stereotypical behavior because of your actions -Your expectations fulfill your actions |
|
Representative Heuristic
|
-The tendency to classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case
-We classify things according to how well they fit into a category we already know about -Prevents us from using better info like base rates |
|
Availability Heuristic
|
-People tend to make judgments based on info that is most easily brought to mind
-EX: elephant/denmark trick |
|
Anchoring Heuristic
|
-People tend to use a generic starting point and then adjust slightly from there when making decisions
-EX: bargaining at a flea market |
|
Reconstructive Memory
|
-Recalling What Never Happened
-Memory is changeable and we change it over time |
|
Illusory Correlation
|
-The belief that 2 variables are realted to one another when they're not
-EX: horoscopes or Hot Hand -We believe in them because we are more likely to notice when our expectations are confirmed than when they're not |
|
Clustering Illusion
|
-When things happen in runs people believe that they couldnt have happened by chance
-OOXXXXOOXO = more real chance than XOXOXOXOXOXOX |
|
Bartlett
|
-First studied memory and came up with schemas
-Did the 'War of the Ghosts' experiment -People remember the most salient things and then exaggerate them |
|
Hindsight Bias
|
-The "i knew it all along" phenomenon
-The tendency to overestimate the predictability of known outcomes after the fact |
|
Perseverence Effect
|
-The tendency to make self-evaluations that are consistent with info we are given, wven when we learn that info was false
-We are biased in our analysis of ourselves -Is related to the concept of availability -Is often applied to our assessment of our own abilities |
|
Counterfactual Thoughts
|
-Reflections on how past events may have turned out differently
|
|
Upward Counterfactuals
|
-Thinking about how events could have turned out better
|
|
Downward Counterfactuals
|
-Thinking about how events could have turned out worse
|
|
False Consensus Effect
|
-The tendency to assume that other people share our own attitudes and behaviors to a greater extent than is actually the cas
|
|
Display Rules
|
-Norms in a culture for how and when emotions should be expressed
-Ex: facial expressions |
|
Attribution Theory
|
-Examines how we answer why an event or behavior occured
-Person/Situation paradigm comes into play here -inernal (person) vs. external (situation) |
|
Kelley's Covariation Model of Attribution
|
-We analyze whether a behavior is correlated with internal factors, external factors, or a combo of both when deciding why the behavior occured
-People are "intuitive scientists" when trying to make attributional decisions -Makes us analyze: Consensus, Distinctiveness, and Consistency |
|
Consensus
|
-Do other people do this behavior?
|
|
Distinctiveness
|
-Does this person do this behaviro in other situations?
|
|
Consistency
|
-Does this person consistently do this behavior in this situation?
|
|
Discounting Principle
|
-If we can see an external cause for behaviors, we reduce the perceived importance of internal causes for that behavior
-EX: Internal or External Attribution |
|
Augmenting Principle
|
-The perceived role of a cause in producing behavior will be increased (or augmented) when other causes (that should work against the behavior) are present
|
|
Correspondence Bias
|
-Overestimate the effect of internal factors and underestimate the role of situational factors
-EX: bad drivers |
|
Cultural Context
|
-May influence the correspondence bias
-Individualism vs Collectivism of the people and media |
|
Actor/Observer Difference
|
-We tend to focus on dispositional (internal) causes
|
|
Perceptual Salience
|
-Focus on the individual in other's behaviors for individual cultures but focus on situation in our own behaviors because we dont want to see flaws
|
|
Social Comparison
|
-We use others as a means of judging our own abilities
-Normally we use appropriate comparisons, but not always |
|
Upward Social Comparison
|
-Comparing ourselves to someone who is better off than we are on a given dimension
-Comparing to professionals/celebrities |
|
Relative Deprivation
|
-A feeling of resentment about our outcomes based on comparisons with better-off others
|
|
Downward Social Comparison
|
-Comparing ourselves to someone who is worse off than we are on a given dimension
|
|
Self-Perception Theory
|
-We use our own behavior to infer our internal states, including likes, dislikes, attitudes, beliefs...
-"i'm eating pistachio ice cream; i must like it" |
|
Overjustification Effect
|
-Our preference towards something that is already intrinsically rewarding can be reduced by adding an extrinsic reward
-Adding a good grade to the best picture colored by kids can make it less fun |
|
The Looking Glass Self
|
-Our self-concept is made in party by our understanding of how others see us - smart, generous, cautious...
|
|
Self Serving Judgments
|
-Perceptions or comparisons that enhance the perceived worth of the self
|
|
Bias Blindspot
|
-The tendency to think that biases and errors are more common in others than in ourselves
|
|
Above Average Effect
|
-On Average, people think they are better than average for positive traits
|
|
Unrealistic Optimism
|
-On average, people think they are more likely to experience good outcomes and are less likely to experience bad things than the average person
|
|
Egocentric
|
-When people cant look outside of what happens to them
|
|
Self-Efficacy
|
-The belief that we are capable of performing a particular behavior that is required for a certain goal
|
|
Illusion of Control
|
-The tendency to overestimate our control of situations and events - like choosing lottery tickets
|
|
Self Discrepancy Theory
|
-Looks at what happens when our self-views conflict
-Discrepancy btw actual and ideal leads to depression and sadness -Discrepancy btw actual and ought leads to guilt |
|
Actual Self
|
-How people believe they really are
|
|
Ideal Self
|
-How people would ideally like to be
|
|
Ought Self
|
-How people think they ought to be
|
|
Self-Presentation
|
-Strategically presenting ourselves in different ways to achieve a positive perception in the eyes of others
-To get others to like us or respect us |
|
Ingratiation
|
-Change your behavior to act like those you like
-Brown-nosing, verbal flattery... |
|
Creating Similarity
|
-We tend to like people who are similar to us in looks, attitudes, etc
-It can be subconscious -Opinion Conformity |
|
Multiple Audience Dilemma
|
-The problem faced when trying to appear likeable to multiple audiences at the same time
-We manage it by: -Segregating the audience -Moderating our presentations |
|
Staging Performance
|
-We seek opportunities to demonstrate our competance
-EX: hosting a book club to impress Princeton Grad |
|
Claiming Competece (brag)
|
-Simply saying things to seem confident
-They are not always tolerated |
|
Confederate
|
-Someone working with the experiment that fakes the hoped result of the experiment
|
|
Self-Handicapping
|
-The tendency to seek or create obstacles in order to have an explanation in the case of potential failure
-EX: drinking 32 beers before a test |
|
Detecting Deception Accuracy
|
-It is not easy
-Only slightly over chance for all but Secret Service Agents (64%) |
|
Dispositions
|
-Consistencies across time and settings in people
-Like traits - enduring individual differences -Quiet, introverted, loud... |
|
Self Concept
|
-The info about ourselves that resides in memory
-Formed through social comparison and self-perception |
|
Identity
|
-The collection of important concepts that define an individual
|
|
Spontaneous Self-Concept
|
-The collection of aspects of identity that are available to awareness at any time
-Priming these aspects brings them to the forefront of consciousness -Distinctiveness of an identity trait in a given solution makes that aspect of identity salient |
|
Social Identity
|
-Beliefs and feelings we have toward the groups to which we see ourselves belonging (ingroup)
|
|
Ingroup
|
-Groups that you belong to: family, school, etc
|
|
Outgroup
|
-Groups you dont belong to: other schools, or other families
|
|
Social Identity Theory
|
-Addresses our identification with a group and the benefits we derive from it
|
|
BIRGing
|
-Basking In Reflected Glory - of those in our ingroup
-Like Bruce Weber |
|
CORFing
|
-Cutting Off Reflected Failure
-Like Ron Zook - no self esteem to be gained there |
|
Minimal Intergroup Paradigm
|
-Experimental procedure in which short-term, arbitrary, artificial groups are created to explore foundations of prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination
-EX: Students give preferential treatment to others who they believe share irrelevant traits - even if random |
|
Optimal Distinctiveness Theory
|
-Examines how we strike a balance btw similarity (with an ingroup) and distinctiveness (as an individual)
-We over compensate to show that we are diff sometimes -Collectivistic people will identify themselves at least 50% with their groups -Individualistic people identify themselves by their traits |
|
Self Esteem
|
-Liking for the self
=A disposition - people's judge of their own worthiness -Sources are: personal experience, reflected appraisal by others relationships, social comparison, and group comparison |
|
Correlates of Self-Esteem
|
-People with high SE typically have more certain self views
-Peopls with high SE engage in self-serving judgments -People with high SE are happier than those with low -People with high SE have greater satisfaction with their personal relationships -(But the 2nd two have no causation) |
|
Narcissism
|
-Represents an exaggerated love of the self
-People with secure high SE confidently hold positive self views -People with defensive high SE hold positive self-vies that are fragile and vulnerable to threat |
|
Gender Behavior
|
-To save time, we often sharpen the distinctions btw groups and soften the differences within groups
-We assume stereotypes are sharper than they actually are -Clearest gender difference is for homocide -There are biological explanations and Cultural explanations |
|
Self Monitoring
|
-Individual differences in relying on external or internal cues to guide behavior
-Person who is always the same across situations = low -Person who changes everything with the situation = high |
|
Need For Cognition
|
-People with high think a lot and need to know how things work
-People with low think less and dont care how it works as long as it does |
|
Acheivement Motivation
|
-Individual differences in performance goals
-Test it with the Thematic Apperception Test |
|
Thematic Apperception Test
|
-Show people a sense of ambiguous pictures and the subject has to write a series of stories about the pictures which are analyzed for themes
-People project what they're thinking about to the people in the pictures |
|
Uncertainty Orientation
|
-Individual differences in learning new things about oneself
-People with high Uncertainty Orientation ask Q's to get rid of uncertainty of their ability -People with high Certainty Orientation knew what was inside them and didnt need clarification |
|
Dispositional Optimism
|
-Associated with lower distress in several areas
-Intelligence is positively correlate with health and longevity |
|
Attitude
|
-An individual's evaluation of a target
-They are: -Affective: our feelings or beliefs toward the attitude target -Behavioral: our intention to act towards the target, on our memory of our past behavior towards it -Cognitive: our knowledge of the attitude target |
|
Ambivalent Attitudes
|
-Attitudes that include both positive and negative elements
-EX: ice cream tastes so good but cognitive says it makes you fat |
|
Object Appraisal
|
-Attitudes provide us with a quick evaluation of an object, allowing us to decide hot to act towards it (approach vs avoid)
|
|
Value-Expression
|
-Attitudes help us communicate info about ourselves and our beliefs
|
|
Mere Exposure Effect
|
-Our attitude towards a target can be made more positive by merely being frequently exposed to it
|
|
Attitudes Come From
|
-Learning: exposure, conditioning, knowlege evaluation, behavior evaluation
-Socialization: parents, reference groups -Genes |
|
Affective Response
|
-Attitude targets that consistently CAUSE positive or negative feelings will be evaluated as being either positive or negative
-EX: rainbows, garbage, sushi |
|
Evaluative Conditioning
|
-Attitude targets that are ASSOCIATED with positive or negative feelings will be evaluated as being either positive or negative
-EX: pavlov's dog, wheelchairs... |
|
Knowledge Evaluation
|
-Our cognitive understanding of and beliefs about a target, how it operates, and what it means affects our attitude toward it
-EX: drillin in the arctic |
|
Behavior Evaluation
|
-Our knowledge of how we have behaved towards a target IN THE PAST
influences our attitude toward it -EX: seat belts |
|
Heredity in Attitudes
|
Genes can cause certain circumstances that might lead us to hold a specific attitude
-But there is not always causation btw them |
|
Explicit Attitudes
|
-Those that we are conscious of or able to express
-Accessed using self-report measures |
|
Implicit Attitudes
|
-Exist below consciousness, cannot be verbally expressed
|
|
Liker-Type Scales
|
-Respondent indicates the extent to which he/she agrees or disagrees with a series of statements
-Stongly disagree <--> Strongly agree |
|
Thurstone Scales
|
-Respondent indicates which statements, both positive and negative, he/she agrees with - does not assess degree the way people feel
|
|
Socially Desirable Responding
|
-Respondents sometimes respond to such measures in a way they think is socially appropriate rather than in a way that honestly reflects their true attitude
-EX: attitudes towards people with disabilities |
|
Implicit Association Test
|
-Measures implicit attitudes by recording reaction times
-Online test with pictures and response time |
|
Info Processing
|
-How we perceive the world and how we interpret the info we receive
|
|
Selective Perception
|
-We pay attention to and remeber the things that are consistent with our attitudes
|
|
Behavior
|
-Our attitudes are very useful in predicting our behavior
|
|
Attitude Strength
|
-Strongly held attitudes are better predictors of behavior
-4 Parts: -Extremity -Importance -Direct Experience -Accessibility |
|
Compatability Principle
|
-The measure of attitude and the measure of behavior have to match in terms of specificity/generality in order for the attitude measure to predict the behavior
-General attitudes with General behaviors -Specific attitudes with Specific behaviors |
|
Fishbein and Azjen's Theory of Reasoned Action
|
-Behavior is preceded by behavioral intentions, intentions to perform a behavior
-If you wanted to change a behavior, you could try to change the behavioral intentions -Later changed to Theory of Planned Behavior with the addition of perceived behavioral control |
|
Behavior Model
|
Attitude + Subjective Norm + Perceived Behavioral Control --> Behavioral Intention --> Behavior
|
|
Social Psychologist
|
-People interested in how other people affect every aspect of indivdual's lives, including thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
-Study how individuals process info about other people and how they store this info in memory -They take the perspective of individuals in a social setting rather than focusing only on objective features of the situation |
|
Behaviorism
|
-An approach in psychology which assumes that behavior can be explained purely in terms of stimulus-response connections established through experience and reinforcement
|
|
Gestalt Theory
|
-An approach in psychology which assumes that people’s overall, subjective interpretations of objects are more important than the object’s physical features, and that objects are perceived in their totality, as a unit, rather than in terms of their individual features
|
|
Social Contract
|
-The idea that human societies have developed basic rules of social and moral conduct, which members of the societies implicitly agree to follow
|
|
First Sociologist and Psychologist Textbook writers
|
-Ross
-McDougall |