Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
115 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
B.F. Skinner focused on... |
Rates of responding |
|
Skinner box |
Operated by a rat or pigeon which would press a button or activate a lever to receive food. (Used positive reinforcement) |
|
Behavior is shaped through |
Successive approximations |
|
3 steps to shaping behavior: |
1. Find a good primary and secondary (conditioned) reinforcer 2. Reinforce behaviors that approach the desired behavior. 3. Increase the demand in small steps (only reinforce when the desired action is preformed) |
|
Partial reinforcement |
You don't deliver the reinforcement on every trial. (Longer to aquire, longer to extinguish.) |
|
Fixed ratio schedule |
High rates, pause after reinforcement, "piece rate" (ex. The pidgeon may have to peck the button 20x before they get any reinforcement. The ratio is 1:20) |
|
Variable ratio schedule |
The reinforcement is given at different rates/ times. The responder does not know how many behaviors need to be preformed before reinforcement is given. (Ex. A slot machine pays off an average every few pulls but you never know which pull will pay.) |
|
Fixed interval schedule |
Pause after reinforcement. Causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval but much slower response being immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer. (Ex. Students study more right before a quiz is given) |
|
Variable interval schedule |
High rates, no pauses. (Ex. You listen to the radio to hear your favorite song. You don't know when you will hear it.) |
|
Learning |
A relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of prior experience. |
|
Empiricists (Locke, Hume) say we learn... |
As children by watching adults |
|
Tabula Rasa |
Blank slate. Locke argued that an infant is a tabula rasa and acquires all it's knowledge through sensory experiences. |
|
Association of Ideas |
Complex ideas are combinations of associated simpler ideas |
|
What is the semantic space in your brain used for? |
Responding to the meaning of words. |
|
3 types of learning: |
1. Associative 2. Complex (cognitive) 3. Observational |
|
Classical/ Pavlovian conditioning |
A learning process in which a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus through repeated pairings |
|
Elements of Classical/ Pavlovian conditioning |
- Usually smooth muscles and glands are conditioned - Process is generally "unconscious"/ involuntary - Reinforcement is not subject to chance |
|
CS |
Elicites a response only after learning has taken place. |
|
US |
Stimulus that elicites a response without prior learning. |
|
CR |
Response to a conditioned stimulus, a response that has been learned. |
|
UR |
Response that was not learned (ex. Reflex) |
|
Is the acquisition of Classical/ Pavlovian conditioning in an "S" shaped curve? |
Yes |
|
Elements of Classical/ Pavlovian conditioning: |
- Aquisition - Extinction - Spontaneous recovery - Generalization - Discrimination - Second-order conditioning |
|
Aquisition |
Formation of a CR in the presence of a CS. |
|
Extinction |
Active process, CR is weakened when the CS is repeated without the US. |
|
Spontaneous recovery |
Previously extinguished response reemerges. |
|
Generalization |
Learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the CS produce the same CR. |
|
Discrimination |
A differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the US. |
|
Second-order conditioning |
A process by which a neutral stimulus develops the ability to elicited a CR after being paired only with a CS. |
|
Watson and little baby Albert |
Conditioned a phobia. Baby had no fear of rats (CS) or other animals until paired with a loud noise (US). This fear became generalized to furry objects. |
|
Phobia |
Acquired fear that is out of proportion |
|
Garcia Effect |
Occurs when an animal associates a certain food with illness. Usually learned after getting sick on a food. |
|
Conditioned food aversions are difficult to produce with... |
Light or sound |
|
Operant conditioning |
Learning process in which the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be preformed in the future |
|
What muscles does operant conditioning use? |
Skeletal (voluntary) |
|
Is the acquisition of Operant conditioning in an "S" shaped curve? |
Yes |
|
Law of Effect |
When a reward immediately follows a behavior that behavior is strengthened |
|
Reinforcers |
Stimuli which, when they follow a behavior, act to increase the probability of the behavior. |
|
Positive reinforcement |
Presenting a stimulus (ex. Candy) |
|
Negative reinforcement |
Removing a stimulus (ex. Loud buzzer) |
|
Punishers |
Stimuli which, when they follow a behavior, act to decrease the probability of the behavior. |
|
Positive punishment |
Presenting a stimulus (ex. A smack) |
|
Negative punishment |
Removing a stimulus (ex. Your phone) |
|
Does punishment extinguish undesirable behavior? |
No, it only supresses it |
|
Side effects of punishment (2) |
- Often elicits emotional responses that are incompatible with learning new behaviors. - Negative effects may generalize to persons delivering the punishment or to the entire situation. |
|
Complex (non-associative) learning |
Characterized by "sudden understanding" or insight |
|
Is the acquisition of Complex conditioning in an "S" shaped curve? |
No |
|
Insight learning |
(takes place without reinforcement) A solution to a problem suddenly emerges after either a period of inaction or contemplation of the problem. (Ex. Multiple stick problem) |
|
Latent learning |
Learning develops over time. Not with continued reinforcements (Ex. Sleep on it) |
|
Cognitive map |
A visual/spatial mental representation of an environment. |
|
Vicarious learning |
Learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for preforming the action. |
|
Mirror neuron |
Neurons are activated when one observes another individual engage in an action and when one preforms the action that was observed. |
|
Motivation |
Factors that energize and direct behavior |
|
Innate |
Attracted to and interested in something gives way to learning (Often what is innate is a fascination with certain stimuli, which generates a tendency to learn a particular type of info) |
|
Drive Theories |
A drive is an aroused state that results from a biological need we act to reduce drives or keep them at homeostasis. (Controlled via homeostatic processes) |
|
Incentive theory |
Stress the motivational role of external events that act as reinforcers (ex. Sex, money) (Learned) |
|
What was the reason for lateral hypothalamus stimulation by Olds and Miller? |
They were interested in how activation of different parts of the brain activate learning. |
|
Rats often prefer _____ to food, sex. |
Self stimulation |
|
The medial forebrain bundle axon system uses ____ as a neurotransmitter. |
Dopamine |
|
Feedback loop to maintain homeostasis: |
1. Sensor reads level of variable 2. Comparator compared to ideal set point, sends signals to effector 3. Effector makes a change if necessary to return to set point (Ex. Sweat to cool the body) |
|
Feeding behavior is controlled by... |
Incentive and learning |
|
Gut factors (peripheral) |
Satiety sensors in duodenum, secrete CCK which acts on the brain to cause a cessation of eating. (Negative feedback) |
|
Taste (peripheral) provides... |
Incentive to eat |
|
Glucostatic theory (central) |
Brain (hypothalamus) detects levels of blood glucose. If level drops it signals for us to eat via hunger. |
|
"Fat rat" syndrome (central) |
(ventro-medial hypothalamus) no control over signals which causes constant hunger. |
|
Osmodetectors |
(Hypothalamus) detect high salt in blood and initiate sensation of thirst |
|
Sweating and dehydration result from... |
Extracellular compartment, including blood. |
|
The brain helps conserve water by... |
Telling the pituitary gland to secrete ADH which tells the kidneys to conserve water and causes feelings of thirst. |
|
Habituation |
Decrease in behavioral response after repeated exposure to non threatening stimulus |
|
Sensitization |
Increase in behavioral response after exposure to threatening stimulus. (Heightened responses, increase in neurotransmitter release) |
|
Long term potentiation |
Strengthening of synaptic connection, post synaptic neuron is more easily activated. |
|
3 stages of memory: |
1. Encode = info us acquired and processed into neural code 2. Storage = info is stored in the brain 3. Retrieval = info is retrieved when needed |
|
What does the short term memory do? |
- Stores materials needed for short periods - Serves as a workspace for mental computations - Required to solve problems |
|
The working memory usually encodes ____ info. |
Sensory |
|
Memory is distributed _____. |
Equipotentially |
|
The medial temporal lobe core is responsible for... |
Strengthening connections among neurons when something is learned. |
|
Sensory memory |
Memory system that briefly stores sensory info close to it's original form. (Persists for 1/3 second before going away.) |
|
Magic number |
7 (plus or minus 2), people can typically keep seven items (plus or minus two) in their short-term memory |
|
Chunking |
Organize information into meaningful units. (Uses long term memory to help short term memory) (Ex. CTVTNH = Connecticut, Vermont, New Hampshire = New England) |
|
The speed of retrieval in working memory depends on... |
The # of items in memory (base is ~400 ms, with 40 ms added per item) |
|
Serial position effect |
The ability to recall items from a list depends on the order of their presentation. (We remember those at the beginning and end best) |
|
Primacy effect |
Better memory people have for items presented at the beginning. |
|
Recency effect |
Better memory people have for the most recent items |
|
Encoding in the long term memory is based on ____. |
Meaning (we don't remember sensory details) |
|
Maintenance rehersal |
Repeating items over and over |
|
Elaborative rehearsal |
Encodes info in more meaningful ways |
|
Do we lose info or the access to the info? |
The access |
|
"Tip of the tongue" phenomenon |
Failing to retrieve a word from memory |
|
Interference |
Impares retrieval |
|
Spreading activations of memory |
Stimulation of working memory activates specific nodes in long-term memory |
|
Amnesia |
Deficit in long term memory |
|
Retrograde amnesia |
Cannot remember events prior to brain damage. (Can't recall past memories) |
|
Anterograde amnesia |
Cannot later remember events that occur after brain damage. (Can't form new memories) |
|
Retrieval cue |
Anything that helps someone recall info stored in the long term memory |
|
Organization |
The more we organize material the easier it is to retrieve |
|
Context |
Easier to retrieve Indo when the context is similar during encoding and retrieval |
|
Context dependent memory |
Based on physical location, odors, background music |
|
State dependent memory |
Mood affecting recovery of info |
|
Implicit memory |
System underlying unconscious memory |
|
Explicit memory |
System underlying conscious memories (Episodic and semantic) |
|
Episodic memory |
Memory of ones past experiences |
|
Semantic memory |
Memory of knowledge of the world |
|
Declarative memory |
Cognitive info taken from explicit memory |
|
Procedural memory |
Implicit memory that involves motor skills/ behavioral habits |
|
Prospective memory |
Remembering to do something at some future time |
|
Mnemonics |
Learning aides, strategies, devices that improve recal |
|
Method of Loci |
Associate an item with a physical location (Mind palace) |
|
Key word method |
Combining the creation of substitute words with visualization (ex. Radius, radish) |
|
Emotional factors in forgetting: |
- we rehearse emotional material more - anxiety impedes retrieval - repression of very negative emotions (Freud) |
|
Flashbulb |
Vivid episodic memory of when people first learned of an emotionally stimulating event |
|
Memory bias |
Memories change over time to fit current attitudes |
|
Priming |
Exposure to a stimulus influences a response to a later stimulus |
|
Constructive memory |
Memory that is constructed from inferences as well as input information |
|
Inferences |
Ex. You tell a friend you came home and there was an apple pie waiting for you. Weeks later your friend remembers that your mom baked an apple pie for you. |
|
Schemas |
Mental representation of a class of people, objects, events, or situations |