Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
86 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Growing knowledge of ____ mechanisms of behavior are often over-interpreted
|
biological
|
|
What are the 5 perspectives to studying behavior?
|
Description
Evolution Application Mechanism Development |
|
What are some social behaviors displayed in rodents? (describing behavior)
|
Parental care
Social Investigation (sniffing) Allogrooming Aggression Mating |
|
Levels of analysis
What is the best level of analysis? |
Range from circuit levels, to cellular and molecular levels all the way to social levels
NO ONE LEVEL IS BEST The most far reaching science usually can explain behavior at multiple levels of analysis |
|
What is an example of cellular and molecular levels?
Social levels? Circuit level? |
hormones bind to receptors and alter gene expressions.
Exposure to mouse pups maternal behavior circuit from olfactory bulb to amygdala to hypothalamus |
|
How does development alter the brain and behavior? What is maternal behavior determined in part by?
|
Early life experience
|
|
Evolution: All vertebrates share a common ancestor. The idea that similarities in brain structure and function, as well as similarities in behavior allows researchers to do what?
|
compare results from experiments on humans and animals
|
|
What is proximate level of causation?
|
an immediate underlying cause based on operation of internal mechanisms possessed by an individual
This includes neuronal/ hormonal mechanisms, as well as developmental effects |
|
What is the ultimate level of causation?
|
The evolutionary cause behind a trait
-Natural selection -Sexual selection |
|
What were the results involving ultimate causes on the removal of the father from the nest of the monogamous California mouse?
|
When father is removed, fewer pups emerge from the nest
|
|
Ultimate causes as applied to social interaction: Why are mice motivated to engage in social interaction?
|
Potential mates
Potential competitors Family Members |
|
_____ social interactions_____ social withdrawal in many species including: birds, rodents and primates
|
Stressful, induces
|
|
What are the effects of stress and social interactions in humans?
|
social withdrawal in associated with several mental disorders
Mental disorders can be induced by stress |
|
What are the effects of social stress on behavior in mice and antidepressants?
|
Mice that lose aggressive interactions show decreases in social interaction
This effect can be reversed with chronic antidepressant treatment ---stress reduces social interaction and only chronic administration of imipramine or fluoxetine can reverse the effects of social stress These studies focused on behavior that is based on species-specific social interactions |
|
What are some practical applications of biological psychology?
|
It can provide explanations for brain disorders and help to devise treatments
-1/5 people suffers from some form of neurological or psychiatric disorder |
|
What is schizophrenia and what are the hypothesized causes?
|
Symptoms include dissociative thinking or impaired logical thought, as a key symptom, auditory hallucinations, personalized delusions and changes in affect.
-Environmental factors are proposed to only explain 50% of variability in the prevalence of schizophrenia -Viral infections, deliver complications, and psychosocial stress are all environmental factors Genetic causes are prevalent HIGH STRESS AND MANY CONTRIBUTING ALLELES CORRELATED WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA |
|
What are glial cells?
|
originally thought of as the "glue" that holds nerve cells together, but it has become clear that they have important effects on neural transmission
|
|
What are the different types of glial cells and what are their function?
|
Astrocytes
-Star shaped -regulate neural transmission and blood flow Microglia -can move about within the brain -migrate to sites of injury or disease |
|
What are oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells?
|
They are cells that wrap axons with myelin.
-They are called oligodendrocytes in the CNS -Called Schwann cells in the PNS |
|
What is multiple scerosis? symptoms and causes
|
Reduced myelin caused be destruction of oligodendrocytes disrupts electrical signals and neural communication
Severity can vary Treatments are immunosuppressants or nothing Causes difficulty with coordination, cognitive impairment, blurred vision and speech problems |
|
What are action potentials?
|
a.k.a nerve impulses
Brief but large changes in membrane potential Carry info to target cells |
|
What is the biological basis of Action Potentials?
|
Neuronal activity (and therefore behavior), is based on the movement of ions into and out of neurons
In a normal state Na+ is kept outside and K+ is kept inside the cell --this is called the sodium-potassium pump |
|
How are action potentials produced?
|
produced by the movement of Na+ ions into the cell
After reaching a peak (40mV), K+ channels are opened and K+ rushes out of the cell, resulting in hyper polarization Resting state restored when Na+ is pumped out and K+ is pumped back in |
|
What is saltatory conduction?
|
the axon potential travels inside the axon and jumps from node to node?
|
|
How does AP frequency differ?
How long is AP refractory period? In what way does AP occur? |
can vary from a few pulses per second to a max of 1000 pulses per second
Have a refractory period of about 1 msec AP is all or none |
|
In what ways in neural information transmitted at they synaptic level?
|
Neurotransmitters can influence the resting potential of other neurons at chemical synapses
Besides chemical synapses there are electrical synapses, or gap junctions. Ions flow directly through large channels into adjacent cells, with no time delay |
|
What is EPSP?
|
Excitatory postsynaptic potential-
EPSP's usually result from sodium ions entering the cell, making the inside more positive. |
|
What is IPSP?
|
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential-
IPSP's usually result from chloride ions (Cl-) making the inside more negative. Both IPSP's and EPSP's can be influenced by either chemical or electrical synapses |
|
What is the chemical synapse sequence of transmission?
|
1. Action potential travels down the axon to the axon terminal
2. Opens Voltage-gated calcium channels 3. Synaptic vesicles fuse with membrane and release transmitter into the cleft 4. Transmitters bind to the postsynaptic receptors(causing EPSP or IPSP) 5. Transmitter is inactivated or removed- action is brief |
|
What are ligands and the different types of ligands?
What are agonist and antagonist ligands? |
Ligands fit receptors and activate or block them
Endogenous ligands - neurotransmitters and hormones Exogenous ligands -drugs and toxins from outside the body Agonist: ligand that binds a receptor and activates a receptor Antagonist: ligand that binds a receptor and prevents activation of the receptor (Endogenous just agonists, and exogenous both?) |
|
How was opium used to discover endogenous neurotransmitter systems?
|
Opioids extracted from poppy seeds and used since the stone age.
Opiod receptor found by Candace Pert and Sol Snyder Endogenous opiod: Beta-endorphin reduce perception of pain |
|
What happens after a neurotransmitter is released into the synapse?
What happens to serotonin in the presence of monoamine oxidase A in the synapse? |
It is either destroyed or recycled
It can be destroyed |
|
How are SSRI's supposed to work?
|
-SSRI blocks reuptake
-Increase in serotonin in synapse binds to autoreceptors -Decreased firing of serotonin neurons over a period of weeks -Downregulation of auto receptors -increased firing of serotonin neurons -"magic" leads to behavioral effects |
|
What is the difference between electrical and chemical synapses?
|
the distance between neurons is 1/10th that of chemical synapses
sygnals pass from one neuron to the next with virtually no time delay |
|
What systems to electrical synapses control?
|
they control systems that must work quickly such as escape mechanisms in invertebrates or systems that control eye movement
|
|
What is a reflex arc? Example? What does this example reflex consist of?
|
a neural chain is a simple series of neurons
an example of this would be the knee jerk reflex: -a circuit for the stretch reflex, consisting of: a sensory neuron, a motor neuron and a synapse |
|
Why is the knee Jerk Reflex so extremely fast? (3 reasons)
|
1. myelinated neuron
2. Electrical synapse 3. ONly 2 neurons and 1 synapse |
|
It was thought that only the axons send information, but this is now known not to be the case. How do dendrites regulate information flow?
|
Dendritic release regulates release of neurotransmitters from axon terminals
action potential can only be generated next to the cell body and not at the axon terminal Although most neurontransmitters are released from axon terminals, there are exceptions --makes bidirectional flow of information possible |
|
What are cannabinoids?
|
neurotransmitters produced in the brain that resemble tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
E.g., anamide is released from the dendrite and inhibits Ca2+ and therefore neurotransmitter release |
|
What are the tow cannabinoid receptors found in the human body?
|
CB1 receptor: predominantly expressed in brain and responsible for psychoactive effects including appetite and activation of networks influencing motivation
CB2 receptor: agonists for this receptor are not psychoactive. Some compounds are known to reduce pain perception |
|
Computerized axial tomography (CAT or CT). What is a limitation of this technique? A strength?
|
a measure of X-ray absorbiton at several positions around the head, maps tissue density
CAN'T SEE SPECIFIC BRAIN STRUCTURES WELL GOOD AT DETECTING INJURIES |
|
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). What does this scan do that the CAT scan cannot? What does this type of scan not assess
|
Gives higher resolution images
Uses magnets and radio waves to determine tissue density in the brain Allows researchers to see structure, but cannot assess activity |
|
Positron emission tomograpy (PET). What does this scan do that the MRI cannot?
|
give images of brain activity
uses radioactive chemicals injected into the bloodstream and maps their destination by the radioactive emissions By injection radioactive glucose, can determine which brain areas are active during a specific activity |
|
Functional MRI (fMRI)
|
detects small changes in brain metabolism, like oxygen use, in active brain areas
fMRI can show how networks of brain structures respond to various stimuli or while performing specific tasks |
|
What does the sympathetic nervous system do?
|
prepares the body for quick action
-mobilization of energy (catabolic processes) -increased heart rate -increased respiration |
|
WHere are sympathetic nerves found, and what do they regulate?
|
Sympathetic nerves are found in the cervical ganglion and they regulate the function of other organs, primarily through the release of norepinephrine
|
|
What is a Skin Conductance Response?
|
A change in the levels of sweat in the sweat glands
Caused by activation of sympathetic nervous system (involuntary) Often used as a marker of arousal, emotion, and attention |
|
What is the Parasympathetic Nervous System?
|
Generally acts in the opposition to sympathetic nervous system:
-Slows heart rate -vasodialtation -increased digestion -Anabolic activities |
|
Where are parasympathetic nerves located?
How do they affect organ function? |
Just below brainstem and above spinal cord
Primarily through the release of acetylcholine Includes vagus nerve -slows heart rate |
|
Difference between white matter and gray matter
|
White matter consists mostly of myelinated axons
Gray contains more cell bodies and dendrites, which lack myelin |
|
What is the amygdala? What does it do? What if its damaged?
|
Highly complex brain region
Involved in processing emotional information Brain damage inhibits ability to recognize fearful facial expressions |
|
What do the different lobes of the cortex do in the forebrain?
|
Frontal: Planning future action, motor control, etc
Parietal: Somatosensory (pain, temperature, touch) Occipital: Vision Temporal: Hearing/Language/Memory |
|
What is the Basal Ganglia?
|
A group of brain regions that includes regions in the Forebrain and Midbrain
Neurons in the midbrain make dopamine Neurons in the forebrain have dopamine receptors |
|
What does the cerebellum do?
|
involved with central regulation of movement
also regulates conditioned reflexes (such as eye blink) |
|
What is the blood-brain barrier?
|
Tight junctions between endothelial cells forming blood vessels in the brain prevent large molecules from passing from blood into the brain.
Helps prevent infections and toxins from coming into contact with brain cells - also prevents many hormones and drugs from accessing neural cells |
|
What is the ventricular system?
|
A series of chambers filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
|
|
What is the function of CSF?
|
act as a shock absorber
Provide an exchange medium between blood and brain |
|
What are ventricles?
|
The lateral ventricle in each hemisphere extends into all four lobes- is lined with the choroid plexus, a membrane that produces CSF
The choroid plexus filters blood so that nutrients can access brain cells. Some macromolecules can "leak" through into the CSF |
|
What are the 6 stages of Neural development?
|
1. Neurogenesis: mitosis produces neurons
2. Cell migration: cells move to establish distinct populations 3. Differentiation: cells become distinctive neurons or glial cells 4. Synaptogenesis: establishment of synaptic connections 5. Neuronal cell death: selective death of some nerve cells 6. Synapse rearrangement: loss or development of synapses, fine-tuning |
|
What is neurogenesis? Do neurons divide?
|
New neurons and glial cells are formed in a part of the neural tube called the ventricular zone
Neurons dont divide themselves but are a product of cell division |
|
What is cell migration? How do cells migrate?
|
cells move away from ventricular layer
Radial glial cells act as guides for cells to migrate along |
|
What is Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)?
|
The Master Hormone
regulates estrogen and progesterone secretion from ovaries in females controls menstrual cycles and fertility regulates testosterone secretion in testes and influences sperm production in males |
|
What is Kallmann's Syndrome?
|
Men develop without and olfactory bulb
-Anosmic: can not smell Coincides with small testes and infertility Diseases that disrupts olfactory system development will influence fertility because the cells that handle reproduction originate in the olfactory system |
|
What happens during cell differentiation?
|
When cells reach their destinations they begin to express genes to make the proteins they need
This cell differentiation allows a cell to acquire its specific appearance and function |
|
What are the two classes of influences on differentiation?
|
Cell-autonomous: independent of other cells and driven by genes, intrinsic organization as seen in vitro
Neural environment: differentiation affected by other cells (the way you grow up is determined by what your friends are doing) |
|
What is Sonic hedgehog? Is it the presence or absence that influences cell differentiation?
|
a gene that regulates cell differentiation?
Neither, it is the relative concentration of sonic hedgehog |
|
What are the two chemical classes that influence synaptogenesis?
|
Chemoattractants: chemical signals that attract growing axons
Chemorepellents: repel growing axons |
|
What is apoptosis? Which enzyme is produced during this process?
|
cell death, which is a normal part of development
Caspases are the enzymes produced by neurons that cut up proteins and DNA |
|
Contrast Apoptosis and Necrosis
|
Apoptosis: Neuron turns on a set of genes that results in the production of caspases that destroy the cell
- it is then recycled by the immune system Necrosis: neuron dies as a result of an insult (like a stroke or toxin). The neuron swells up and leaks - dead cells build up and can cause inflammation |
|
How are neurons kept alive
|
Growth factors produced by targets are taken up by the axons of innervating neurons
If it doesn't get enough growth factor, the neuron begins apoptosis |
|
What happened when the ephrin-A receptor was inactivated in mice?
|
overgrowth of forebrain and abnormal folding
|
|
How did researchers track cortical development? what were their findings?
|
Took brain scans of children with an MRI every 2 years for 8-10 years and tracked the changes
Found that as time went on the density of neurons went down. and the frontal lobe was the last one to undergo apoptosis |
|
What is synaptic rearrangement? What is one influence on synaptic survival?
|
a.k.a. synaptic remodeling, refines synaptic connections.
one influence is neural activity |
|
What happens when rats are placed in either an enriched environment or standard environment?
|
Enriched are better at learning and problem solving tasks, have larger cerebral cortexes, increased dendritic branching and males also fight more
|
|
What are the causes of the mutations in the cerebellum of weaver and reeler mice?
|
Weaver: missing the granule cell type, but the alignment of the Purkinje cells is normal
Reeler, both cell types are present but their alignment is abnormal 2 different mechanisms for the same phenotype |
|
What do genes do in development?
|
They regulate cell differentiation and direct neuronal migration and organization
|
|
What happens when monocular deprivation occurs during a sensitive period?
|
causes the deprived eye to not respond in adulthood
|
|
Ocular dominance histogram experiment on cats
|
Normal vision: normal distribution (most in middle, some outliers)
Monocular: lose neurons responding to both eyes (only respond to left or right side, always the same side) One eye deviated: use either opposite side or same side, rarely both Binocular: use all almost equally |
|
Important notes regarding visual system development
|
-Normal development stimulates neurons in the visual system to respond to cues coming from both eyes
-Closing one eye during the sensitive period results in the brain ignoring information from that eye when it is opened during adulthood -When eyes are not aligned, the retinas do not send information to neurons on the opposite side of the brain resulting in bad depth perception -Losing sight in both eyes for a brief period of time is less disruptive than losing sight in one eye |
|
What is fragile X syndrome? Which sex is most effected? How is it caused?
|
A mutation in a gene of the X chromosome
A high number of CGG repeats leads to fragile X syndrome by preventing the gene from functioning normally (it is silenced) Most common inherited cause of mental retardation Impact is more severe in males |
|
What is Down syndrome (Trisomy 21)? How is it caused?
|
Caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21
Most individuals have low IQ and some learning difficulties |
|
What are the 3 axes of autism spectrum disorder?
|
1. Social interaction: the hallmark feature, child often unresponsive to people and are indifferent to social engagement
2. Communication (verbal and nonverbal): may fail to respond to their name and avoid eye contact 3. Repetitive behaviors: repetitive movements such as rocking, twirling, biting, or head banging |
|
How can autism vary?
|
Behaviors can range in impact from mild to disabling
There appears to be a degree of independence between the three axes e.g., a child can avoid all eye contact, yet not display any repetitive behaviors |
|
What is the mechanism behind Autism spectrum disorder?
|
People with autism may be unable to empathize with ohters and may have difficulty trying to mimic movements or facial expressions
This can be due to low activation of a frontal cortex area containing mirror neurons |
|
Cause of autism?
|
No consensus for a single cause of autism
Most likely, numerous genes and environmental factors interact to produce autistic symptoms No scientifically accepted connection between vaccinations and autistic symptoms |
|
What are some biological factors affecting memory due to aging? What does the septal complex do?
|
The septal complex provides input to the hippocampus
-many of its neurons use acetylcholine (ACh) as their neurotransmitter -This pathway seems to be involved in memory decline |