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169 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
geological cycle
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physical, chemical and biological processes that produce earth materials necessary for our survival
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subgroups of geological cycle
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-tectonic cycle
-rock cycle -hydrologic cycle -biogeochemical cycle |
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tectonic cycle
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-involves the creation and destruction of tectonic plates
-deforms Earth's crust and produce ocean basins, continents, and mountains |
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rock cycle
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-largest of geological sub cycles
-depends on tectonic cycle for heat and energy -depends on biogeochemical cycle for materials -depends on hydrologic cycle for water |
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what does the rock cycle create?
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sedimentary rocks, metamorphic rocks, igneous rocks
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hydrologic cycle
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-movement of water from the oceans to the atmosphere and back again
-driven by solar energy (sun) |
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how does the hydrologic cycle operate?
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-by way of: evaporation, precipitation, surface runoff and subsurface flow.
-water is stored in different compartments along the way |
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biogeochemical cycle
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the transfer or cycling of a chemical element or elements through the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.
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atmosphere
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layer of gases surrounding the Earth
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lithosphere (geosphere)
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Earth's rocky outer layer
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hydrosphere
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oceans, lakes, rivers and groundwater
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biosphere
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part of the Earth where life (we) exist(s)
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hazards are predictable from scientific evaluation
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hazardous events and processes can be monitored and mapped, and their future activity predicted, on the basis of frequency of past events, patterns in their occurrence and types of precursor events
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risk analysis
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estimating the probability that an event will occur
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hazardous events that used to produce disasters are now producing catastrophes
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as a result of increased human population and intervention in nature, hazardous events are now worse
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uniformitarianism
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the present is the key to the past
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environmental unity
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one action causes others in a chain of actions and events
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minerals
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naturally occurring substances with defined physical and chemical properties
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properties of minerals
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hardness, specific gravity, fracture, cleavage, crystal form, color, luster
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hardness
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-resistance to scratching
-related to the size, spacing and strength of bonding of the atoms within the mineral |
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relative hardness (Mohs Scale)
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1-10 scale of hardness invented by Austrian mineralogist Friedrich Mohs
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specific gravity
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density of a mineral compared with the density of water
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cleavage
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minerals that break along smooth, planar surfaces
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crystal form
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geometric shape taken on by the mineral when crystalized
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fracture
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mineral that when broken do no show cleavage
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color
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mineral may have one or many colors
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luster
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the way light is reflected of the mineral
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hazard
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natural process that is a threat to human life or property
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disaster
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-hazardous event over a limited time in a defined area
-10 or more people killed -100 or more people affected |
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catastrophe
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massive disaster that requires significant amount of money and/or time to recover
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most common elements in Earth's crust
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-oxygen (46%)
-silicon (27%) -calcium, aluminum, iron and magnesium (few % each) |
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rock
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aggregate of one or more minerals
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igneous rock
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form when magma (molten rock) cools and crystallizes
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extrusive igneous rock (volcanic)
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cool on surface
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intrusive igneous rock (plutonic)
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cool below surface
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sedimentary rock
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rocks exposed at the Earth surface that are weathered, broken down into small pieces and then buried and compacted together
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metamorphic rock
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pre-existing rocks that are subject to increased temperatures and/or pressure and as a result changed slightly
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law of original horizontality
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sedimentary rocks are deposited in flat layers
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law of superposition
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younger sedimentary rocks overlie older sedimentary rocks
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law of lateral continuity
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isolated segments of sedimentary rocks were originally laterally continuous
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law of inclusions
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rock fragments have to exist (be older) to be included in another sedimentary rocks
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law of cross-cutting relationships
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geological events that cut across pre-existing rocks are younger than the rocks they cut
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most serious coastal hazards
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strong coastal currents, coastal erosion, storm surge, tsunamis
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what generates waves?
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offshore winds
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contributing factors to wave size and shape
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-velocity or speed of the wind
-duration of the wind -distance the wind blows across the water surface (fetch) |
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rogue wave
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wave much larger than the other sets of waves that arrive onshore
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headlands
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small rocky peninsulas on irregular coastlines
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wave period
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length of time required for one wavelength to pass an observer
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beach
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landform consisting of loose material, such as sand and gravel
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where do sea cliffs occur?
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seashore
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where do bluffs occur?
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lakeshore
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littoral transport
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sand movement that occurs parallel to the shoreline in the swash and surf zones
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longshore drift
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movement of sand follows the longshore current
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relative sea level
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position of the sea at the shore
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eustatic sea level
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global sea level
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how are rip currents formed
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when series of large waves pile ip water between the longshore bar and the swash zone, water does not recede the way it came in, instead concentrated in narrow zones
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tides
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daily change in sea-level due to the gravitational pull of the sun and the moon
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large tidal range
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strong tidal currents
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beach spits
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sand projection into bays and inlets caused by longshore drift
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estuaries
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mixed tidal and river environments
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washover fans
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when storms wash over entire sand barrier and redistribute sand landward
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seawalls
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structures built on land parallel to the coastline to help slow erosion and protect buildings from damage
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riprap
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large stone blocks used as a seawall
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groins
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linear structures placed perpendicular to the shore to slow beach erosion
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beach nourishment
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process of extracting sand from the ocean floor and placing it onto the beach
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breakwater
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designed to intercept waves and provide a protected area or harbor for ships
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jetties
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built in pairs perpendicular to the shore at the mouth of a river or entrance to an inlet to keep a ship or boat channel open with minimal dredging
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climate
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-expected weather conditions
-defined locally, regionally, and globally |
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factors of global climate
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-driven by solar heating
-balance of energy retained on earth vs. returned to space -movement of air masses -ocean surface currents -jet streams |
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jet streams
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-polar jet
-subtropical jet |
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multi year oscillations
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-El Nino: southern oscillation
-arctic oscillation |
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El Nino
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change in air pressure and sea surface temperatures in the pacific
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arctic oscillation
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change in pressure over arctic and jet stream patterns
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how we study past temperatures?
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-data
-tree rings -sediments -ice cores -fossils |
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global warming
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observed increase in the average temperature of the near-surface land and ocean environments of Earth during the past 50 years
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greenhouse effect
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the trapping of heat in the Earth's atmosphere
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climate forcing
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imposed change of the Earth's energy balances
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solar forcing
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solar output varies over time (typically 11 year cycle)
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orbital forcing
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changes in shape of orbit and tilt of Earth change the amount of solar energy received
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tectonic forcing
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location of landmasses affect ocean circulation and continental ice sheets
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volcanic forcing
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after an eruption aerosols are hurled into the air that reflect the suns energy and causes a net cooling effect
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anthropogenic forcing
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human processes that causes global warming
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albedo
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measure of reflection
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high albedo
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-high reflection
-more snow and ice |
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ocean conveyor
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exchange of warm surface water and cold deep water
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fossils and temperature
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location of past lifeforms reflect past climates
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ice cores and temperature
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may provide records dating back several million years
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sea-level rise
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shoreline moves upwards and landwards
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effects of warming
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-sea level rise
-arctic sea ice loss -increase in extreme weather events -increased heat waves and droughts |
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climate change mitigation
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-remove CO2
-reduce CO2 emissions -adapt -ignore or deny problem |
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dust storms
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-loss of farmland
-forced migration |
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fire triangle
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oxygen, heat, fuel
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1st phase of wildfire
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preignition
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preignition
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fuel is brought to both a temperature and water content that favors ignition
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pyrolysis
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-"heat divided"
-processes that chemically degrade the fuel |
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2nd phase of a wildfire
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combustion
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combustion
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-begins with ignition
-starts a set of processes completely different that preignition |
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three primary ways heat is transferred
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conduction, radiation, convection
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conduction
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transmission of heat through molecular contact
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radiation
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heat transfer through electromagnetic waves
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convection
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heat transfer by the movement of heated gases
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3rd stage of a wildfire
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extinction
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extinction
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the point at which combustion including smoldering ceases
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three factors that help explain wildfires
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fuel, topography, weather
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fuel
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differ in type, size, quantity arrangement and moisture content
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peat
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type of fuel that consists of an unconsolidated deposit of partially decayed wood, leaves, or moss
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topography
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-moisture content of fuel heavily influenced by location
-also influence air circulation -slopes make movement of wildfires easier |
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weather
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temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, and winds have a dominant influence on wildfires
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ground fires
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creep along slowly just under the ground surface and burn in duff
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duff
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decaying organic matter in the soil
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surface fires
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fires which move along the ground and vary in intensity
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crown fires
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fires in which flaming combustion is carried through the canopies of trees
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fire regime
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1. types of fuel found in plant community
2. typical fire behavior 3. overall fire history of the area |
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prescribed burns
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human ignition of built up fuels in a forest to reduce the amount of fuels in a certain area and reduce the likelihood of a catastrophic event
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red flag warnings
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when extreme fire conditions are either occurring or will take place in the next 24 hours
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cyclone
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a low-pressure area with a closed circulation
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stream order
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number of tributaries a stream has
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storm surge
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sudden rise in sea level when a cyclone makes landfall
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bedrock streams
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fast-flowing, steep terrain, narrow valleys
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river discharge, how to calculate
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width and depth of stream, flow velocity
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preventing rock falls
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rock bolts and netting are used
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levee
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elevated area along the length of a stream bank
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what is released when water vapor condenses
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heat
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when watershed is urbanized, flood discharge......?
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increases
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air mass
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area of atmosphere with similar temperatures and humidity
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angle of repose
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increasing steepness past this point will increase likelihood of flow-type movements
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lower the air pressure
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the more intense the storm
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why do large streams take longer to flood
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thy have larger drainage basins that take more time to fill up
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misconception of extratropical storms
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they do produce storm surges
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flow
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mass of material moving in coherent pieces down a defined surface
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flood stage
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when the elevation of a stream's surface exceeds that of a stream bank
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vegetation mitigation of mass wasting
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-slowing rate of water infiltration
-holding soil in place |
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fully saturated soil
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surface tension of the water in the pores reduces strength of this soil
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increased probability of mass wasting
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increased driving force, decreased resisting force
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karst topography is underlain by this type of bedrock
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limestone
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two types of sinkholes
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collapse and solutional
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what dissolved gas makes water acidic
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carbon dioxide
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what type of clay expands when saturated with water
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smecite
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soil formation begins with the weathering of what?
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bedrock
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water cycle
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transfer of water between oceans, atmosphere, surface water on land and groundwater
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can cause soil creep by expanding and contracting the water in soil
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freezing and thawing of soil
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jet streams
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narrow currents of fast moving winds between the troposphere and stratosphere, helps steer storms
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flash flooding
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caused by heavy precipitation and rapid runoff into a small drainage basin
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thrust faults
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type of fault most associated with convergent plate boundaries
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epicenter
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location at the surface of the earth directly above the point of rupture
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movement along faults....
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cause earthquakes
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the biggest earthquakes occur where
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at subduction zones
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mercalli scale
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effects of earthquakes that include, shaking of buildings and those felt and observed by people
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what causes a tsunami generated by an earthquake
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mega thrust quakes at subduction zones
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surface waves
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largest wave of an earthquake with greatest energy but do not travel through the earth only on the surface
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what happens to seismic waves as they move farther from the focus?
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they lose energy
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magnitude
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measures the amount of energy of the quake at the focus
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can earthquakes be predicted
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no
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seismic gap
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section of an active fault with few earthquakes
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most of the Earth's water is stored in which reservoir of the Earth's hydrological cycle?
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oceans
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two types of floods
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flash floods and downstream floods
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floodplain
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relative flat lowland that borders a river
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two types of rivers described in class
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alluvial rivers and bedrock rivers
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larger waves have more energy because
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wave energy is proportional to wave height squared
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ocean city, NJ spent 5 million on beach nourishment in 1982, how long did it last?
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2 and 1/2 months
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global conveyor or thermohaline cycle
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the global circulation and exchange of warm surface and cold deep water in the earth
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anthropogenic forcing
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increased greenhouse gases from human activities
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albedo
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amount of reflection a substance has
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Milankovitch Cylcles
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periodic changes in Earth's orbit and the tilt and direction of Earth's axis
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an active sun releasing more energy
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has more sunspots
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what is not a greenhouse gas
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argon
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in a warming global climate, sea level increases due to...
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-melting of continental ice sheets on land
-thermal expansion of sea water |
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dust bowl
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due to a combination of extended drought and agricultural practices not suitable for the region
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positive feedback
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when glacial ice melts and bare ground is exposed
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