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147 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What does a source sink model do?
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Recognizes differences in quality of suitable habitat patches
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What is a sink patch?
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Where resources are scarce
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What is a source patch?
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Where resources are abundant
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How are sink patches maintained?
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Immigration of other populations/individuals
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What happens within a source patch?
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-Individuals produce more offspring needed to replace themselves
-Surplus of individuals move to other patches |
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What does a landscape model do?
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Considers effects of differences in habitat quality within the matrix
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How can the quality of a habitat patch be enhanced by the nature of the surrounding matrix?
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Quality is enhanced by the presence of resources within the matrix: Nest material, pollinators, etc
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How can the quality of a habitat patch be reduced by the nature of the surrounding matrix?
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Quality is reduced by presence of predators or disease organisms in matrix
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What is a metapopulation model?
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Views a population as a set of subpopulations occupying patches of a particular habitat
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What is a habitat matrix?
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Intervening habitat in a metapopulation model
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What is a matrix to a metapopulation model?
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Matrix is viewed as a barrier to dispersal
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What is Ideal Free Distribution?
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When individuals can make decisions regarding the quality of habitat patches
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What does the quality of a habitat patch depend on?
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Intrinsic qualities (resources/predators/etc) and the density of the population
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How frequently does ideal free distribution happen and why?
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Rarely: Individuals do not have perfect knowledge of patch quality and free choice may be reduced in subordinate individuals.
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What would happen if everything followed ideal free distribution?
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Ideal free distribution would suggest equivalent reproductive success among individuals occupying habitat patches of different quality (intrinsic)
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What are the 2 components for total population size?
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1. Density
2. Area Occupied |
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What is the formula to determine total population?
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Density x Area Occupied = Size
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How is density measured for small populations?
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Total count, physical markings (bands)
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How is density measured in sessile organisms?
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Determined in plots then extrapolated to entire population
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What is the mark recapture method used for?
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In animal populations
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How is the Mark recapture method used?
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-An initial sample is collected and all individuals are distinctly marked
-Marked animals are released into the population and allowed to mix -A second sample is collected and marked and unmarked individuals are tallied |
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What is the formula for the mark recapture method?
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N = nM/x
-N: Population size -M: Initial marked sample -n: Number from second sample -x: Number recaptured from first sample |
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Solve:
20 fish are marked and released. 3 days later you net 50 fish and 6 of them are marked from the first sample. What is the population size? |
N = nM/x
= 50x20/6 = 167 |
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What is migration/dispersal?
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Movement between subpopulations
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What is the difference between emigration and immigration?
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-Emigration: Leaving a subpopulation
-Immigration: Entering a subpopulation |
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What are some direct methods to monitor dispersal/monitored?
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Very difficult:
-Organisms must be marked and recaptured -Large areas must be covered to ensure an adequate sampling of movements |
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What are 2 indirect methods for monitoring dispersal?
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Genetics and stable isotopes
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What are the 4 seasons of a small temperate lake?
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Winter, Spring, Summer Fall
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Describe winter conditions in a small temperate lake.
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-Coldest water (0 degrees) at surface = ice
-Water beneath ice layer is insulated and unfrozen, 4 degrees C near bottom (water is dense, so it sinks) |
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Describe spring conditions in a small temperate lake.
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-Ice melts as surface warms. Denser water sinks.
-Results in uniform 4 degrees C profile. Little resistance to wind. -Causes Spring Overturn |
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Describe summer conditions in a small temperate lake.
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-Continue warming at the surface. Causes Thermal Stratification.
-Stable, resists overturn |
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What are the three water layers during summer in a small temperate lake?
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1. Epilimnion – Warmest waters, least dense, near surface and well oxygenated.
- Most things live here but runs out of nutrients. 2. Thermocline – Rapid temperature change, 5-20 meters below surface 3. Hypolimnion – Cool/Dense bottom water, may be oxygen depleted from organisms. |
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What is the epilimnion layer?
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Warmest waters in lake, least dense, near surface and well oxygenated. Most things live here but runs out of nutrients.
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What is the thermocline layer?
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Rapid temperature change, 5-20 meters below surface of lake
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What is the hypolimnion layer?
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Cool/Dense bottom water, may be oxygen depleted from organisms.
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Describe fall in a small temperate lake.
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-Water cools at the surface and sinks, destroying stratification
-Allows Fall (Autumn) Overturn. Allows nutrients to mix and rejuvenate water. |
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What is the gradient temperature in the mountains?
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-Temperature decreases: 6-10o C for each 1000 m in elevation
-Equivalent to going up 800 km in latitude |
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What is soil?
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-Chemically and biologically altered materials overlying rock or unaltered parent material at Earth’s surface
-Composed of: Minerals, Organic Matter (dead), Air, Water, Living Organisms |
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Describe the 4 layers of soil.
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-O Layer: Dead organic matter (plants)
-A Layer: Humus rich (decomposed organic matter) -B Layer: Low organic matter (partially broken down,) clay and leeching occurs -C Layer: Similar to parent rock (support) |
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What is O Layer of soil composed of?
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Dead organic matter (plants)
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What is the A Layer of soil composed of?
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Humus rich (decomposed organic matter)
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What is the B layer of soil composed of?
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Low organic matter (partially broken down,) clay and leeching occurs
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What is the C layer of soil composed of?
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Similar substance to parent rock
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What is genotype?
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Unique genetic constitution of an individual (unless you’re an identical twin)
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What is evolution?
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Any change in the genetic makeup of a population
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What is fitness?
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Reproductive success of an individual (fecundity)
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What are the 3 processes that influence selection?
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Physical condition, food resources and predation
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What is phenotype?
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Outward expression of the genotype
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What is the difference between phenotype and genotype?
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-Genotype is a set of instructions
-Phenotype is modified by the environment (environmental conditions) that affect growth and development |
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What role do genes play?
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Encode proteins
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What is an allele?
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Different forms of a particular gene (or any segment of DNA)
-Different alleles can cause perceptible and measureable differences in phenotype |
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What happens if an allele is defective?
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Can cause genetic disorders like sickle cell anemia and albinism
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What does heterozygous mean?
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2 different alleles
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What does homozygous mean?
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2 identical alleles
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How is a set of alleles inherited?
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Sexual reproduction: One set of alleles from both parent (mother and father)
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What are the 3 types of phenotypes?
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Dominant, Recessive, Co-Dominant
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What is phenotype plasticity?
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Environmentally induced variation in the phenotype
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Describe an optimal range of conditions.
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Above minimum required to maintain a population
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Describe a suitable range of conditions.
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Above minimum required to maintain an organism (limited fitness)
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Describe a marginal range of conditions.
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Above minimum required to maintain critical function (no fitness)
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What is acclimation?
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Reversible change in structure
-Ex: Thicker fur in the winter, increase blood cell numbers at higher elevations, smaller leaves in a drier season. |
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What is the reaction norm?
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Observed relationship between the phenotype and environment
-A given phenotype gives rise to different phenotypes under different environmental conditions |
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How do you determine what is plasticity and what is evolution?
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Reciprocal Transplant Experiment
-Switch individuals between 2 locations -Compare observed phenotypes: 1. Kept in own environment 2. Transplanted to different environment |
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What 5 main factors of life history that make up the schedule of an organisms life?
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1. Age of maturity
2. Number of reproductive events 3. Allocation of energy to reproduction 4. Number of size and offspring 5. Life span |
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What influences life histories?
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-Body plan and life style of an organism
-Physical conditions -Food supply -Predators -Other biotic factors (competition, etc) |
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What are 3 alternative strategies to plasticity in extreme environments?
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1. Migration
2. Storage 3. Dormancy |
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What is migration?
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Moving to another region where conditions are more favorable (ex: birds, butterflies, etc)
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What is irruptive behavior?
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Response to resource limitations (owls, locusts, etc)
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Why would organisms use storage?
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So they can rely on resources accumulated under more favorable conditions
-Ex: Cacti store water during rainy periods. Some animals in polar region store fat. Some mammals/birds cache food supplies (store it up, like squirrels) |
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What is dormancy?
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Becoming inactive
-Ex: Trees shed leaves during drought. Mammals hibernate. Insects can reduce freezing point and decrease metabolic rate. Plant seeds and spores of bacteria and fungi |
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What are 2 stimuli for extreme responses?
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-Proximate Factors: Cues used to access environmental factors but which do not directly affect well being.
-Ex: Day length, photo period -Ultimate Factors: Features of the environment which directly affect well being -Ex: Food supply |
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What are proximate factors?
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Cues used to access environmental factors but which do not directly affect well being.
-Ex: Day length, photo period |
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What are ultimate factors?
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Features of the environment which directly affect well being
-Ex: Food supply |
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What are the 4 components of fitness?
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1. Maturity: Age of first reproduction
2. Parity: Number of reproductive episodes (yearly, bi yearly, once?) 3. Fecundity: Number of offspring per reproductive episode (one, a dozen, hundreds, etc) 4. Aging: Total length of life |
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What is Lack's Proposal?
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-Why would arctic birds have bigger clutch size than tropical?
- Artificially increased number of eggs per clutch (moved more eggs into a nest) -Test to see is # of offspring is limited by food supply -7 is average. Take some away, still good chance most will survive. Add more, most or all die. Not enough food. |
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How are life histories shaped by natural selection?
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-Contribute to reproductive success, thus influence fitness
-Vary in a consistent way with respect to environmental factors |
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Explain the Slow Fast Continuum.
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1. Life history traits often vary consistently with respect to habitat or environmental conditions
2. Variation in one life history trait is often correlated with variation in another |
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What are the benefits and costs of reproducing at a young age?
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BENEFITS
-Increase fecundity at that age COST -Reduce survival -Reduce fecundity at later age(s) |
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If there is a low probability of adult survival and high probability of offspring survival, when should the organism breed?
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ASAP. Make lots of babies!
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If there is a high probability of adult survival and low probability of offspring survival, when should the organism breed?
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Much later in life and have very few offspring.
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How is fecundity related to growth?
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-Increased fecundity in one year reduces growth, reduces fecundity in later years
-Shorter lived organism – optimal strategy emphasizes fecundity over growth -Longer lived organism – optimal strategy emphasizes growth over fecundity |
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What is semelparity?
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Organisms that breed once in lifetime and allocate all their stored resourced to reproduction
-Programmed death after: Salmon, century plant (agave), brown antechinus (mouse-like) |
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What is iteroparity?
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Organisms that breed multiple times during lifespan
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When would an animal use central place foraging?
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-When animals are tied to a particular place
-Ex: Nest with offspring, must care for offspring |
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How does distance affect foraging and fitness?
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-Increasing foraging range results:
-Greater potential for finding food -Greater time investment, energy cost, risk in travel -Animal must maximize the amount of food return per unit time |
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When foraging, each food item has intrinsic value based on:
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1. Nutrient and energy content
2. Difficulty in handling prey 3. Potential danger of toxins |
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What are the basics of sexual reproduction?
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-Most animals and plants do it
-Production of male and female haploid gametes (eggs and sperm) occurs by meiosis -Gametes join (fertilization) to produce a diploid zygote: Develops into a new individual. |
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How do progeny relate to their parents in asexual reproduction?
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Progeny are usually identical to another and to their single parent
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What are the costs of meiosis?
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-Only ½ of genetic material in each offspring comes from each parent
-Each offspring contributes 50% as much to the fitness as either parent |
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When does the cost of meiosis not apply?
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-When individuals have both male and female function: Hermaphrodite
-When males contribute as much as females to the number of offspring produced (parental care) -Male investment doubles number of offspring produced by female |
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What is the advantage of sexual reproduction?
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-Production of genetically varied offspring
-This may be advantageous when environments also vary in time and space |
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What is the disadvantage of sexual reproduction?
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-Gonads are expensive organs to produce and maintains
-Mating is risky behavior and costly |
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What is the Red Queen Hypothesis?
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-Genetic variation represents an opportunity for hosts to produce offspring to which pathogens are not adapted
-Sex and genetic recombination provide a moving target for the evolution by pathogens of virulence -Hosts continually change to stay ‘one step ahead’ of their pathogens -“The Red Queen has to run faster and faster in order to keep still where she is.” |
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What is the difference in reproduction success between males and females
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-Females: Reproductive success depends on her ability to make eggs
-Takes lots of resources to produce a single egg -Males: Reproductive success depends on number of eggs he can fertilize -Few resources to make lots of sperm |
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What is the most common type of sexual reproduction?
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Promiscuity
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What is Promiscuity?
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-Males mate with as many females as possible
-Males only contribute their offspring with 1 thing: A set of genes -No lasting pair bond |
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What is polygamy?
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When a single individual of one sex forms “long term” bonds with more than one individual of the opposite sex
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What is the difference between polygyny and polyandry?
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1. Polygyny (harem)
-1 male, many females -Common in many groups: Camels, birds, elk/deer 2. Polyandry -1 female, many males -Rare |
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What is monogamy?
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-Formation of a lasting pair bond between one male and one female
-Pair bond persists through period where it is required to raise young -Pair bond may last until death -Monogamy is favored when males can contribute substantially to care of young |
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Do males contribute to raising young in a male dominance polygamy?
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Nope.
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What are the benefits to males and females in extrapair copulations?
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-Benefits to males:
1. Increased fitness 2. Possible future mate acquisition 3. Insurance against mate’s infertility -Benefits to females: 1. Fertility insurance 2. Genetically diverse young 3. Improved genetic quality of young 4. Access to resources |
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What are the costs for males and females in extrapair copulations?
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-Costs for Females:
1. Male retaliation 2. Risk of injury 3. Harassment by extra pair males -Costs for Males: 1. Sperm depletion 2. Increased risk of cuckoldry (raising someone else’s young) 3. Reduction of parental care 4. Increased likelihood of ‘divorce’ |
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What happens if differences among males that influence female choice are under genetic control?
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-Leads to sexual selection
-Leads to evolution of spectacular plumage and other seemingly outlandish displays -Evolution of traits used in combat |
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What are the consequences to sexual selection?
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-Typical result of sexual dimorphism
-Difference in outward appearance of males and females of the same species (color, size, plumage, etc) -Traits which distinguish sex above the primary sexual organs are called secondary sexual characteristics -Driven by female choice -Widowbird: Loooong tail to attract females, also attracts predators. |
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What is runaway sexual selection?
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When secondary sexual traits confer greater fitness
1. Handicap Principal: Male can survive even though he has handicap (big plumage/colors/etc) 2. Parasite Mediated Sexual Selection: Nice plumage = few parasites |
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What is social behavior?
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-Includes all interactions among individuals of the same species
-These interactions range from cooperation to antagonism -Consequences of these interactions for individuals are substantial: Affects individual fitness |
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Why is territoriality established between species?
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-Prevents others from intruding resources.
-Resource that Is defensible (water/food/shelter) -Rewards outweigh the cost of defense |
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What are the costs and benefits to protecting territory?
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-Costs: Requires time, energy, risk of injury
-Benefits: Improves access to resources (food, nests, roost) |
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What are Dominance Hierarchies?
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When individuals order themselves by social rank or status
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Why is it assumed that dominance hierarchies are evolved traits?
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Defense of individual territories may not always be practical for each individual.
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In any confrontation, participants must weight:
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1. Cost of fighting and benefit of winning
2. Likely outcome of the contest (death, injury, etc) -Determining optimal behavior is complicated by each individual’s lack of knowledge about the behavior of the other participant |
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What are benefits to group behaviors?
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Less individual vigilance (many individuals to look out for group)
-More time to do other activities (eating/drinking/bathing) -Less likely to be specifically predated on |
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What are the costs to group behaviors?
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-Rapid depletion of resources
-Forces flock to move more frequently |
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In social interactions, who are donors and who are recipients?
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1. Donors: Initiate behavior
2. Recipients: Toward whom the behavior is directed |
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What are the 4 classifications of fitness behaviors for donors and recipients?
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-Cooperation: Benefits donor and recipient (selected for)
-Selfishness: Benefits donor, not the recipient (selected for) -Spitefulness: Benefits no one (selected against) -Altruism: Benefits recipient at cost to donor |
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What fitness behavior is most problematic behavior from an evolutionary standpoint and why?
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Altruism
-Reduced fitness of donor -Increased fitness of recipient |
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What is kin selection?
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-When an individual directs a behavior toward a close relative it influences the fitness of the individual it’s related to.
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What percentage of genes does the following kin share:
1. Offspring/Sibling 2. Cousins 3. Nieces/Nephews/Half Sibling |
1. 50%
2. 12.5% 3. 25% |
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What is inclusive fitness?
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The total fitness of a gene responsible for a particular behavior
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Fitness of an altruistic gene is determined by:
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Influence on the fitness of the donor and on the fitness of the recipient, weighing how closely they are related (coefficient relationship)
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A gene promoting altruistic behavior will have a positive inclusive fitness if
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C < Br
-C: Cost to donor of altruistic act -B: Benefit to recipient -r: Probability that recipient carries a copy of same gene as donor |
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When would genes for altruistic behaviors increase in a population?
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-Behaviors have low cost to the donor
-Behaviors are restricted to close relatives |
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What is the game theory?
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Analyzes the outcome of behaviors and behavioral decisions when these outcomes depend on the behavior of the other players
-Predicts the individuals behavior based on best estimates of: -The other contestant’s response -Reward for winning |
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In the hawk-dove game, what characteristics are in the dove?
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: Never compete over resources and share resources with other doves. Always yield to hawks.
-Altruistic behavior for doves |
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In the hawk-dove game, what characteristics are in the hawk?
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Always competes for resources and takes all the rewards when it wins
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What is the payoff in the hawk-dove game for H vs H?
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H vs H: (0.5xB-C) for Hawk No Doves
-B: benefits (resources that increase fitness) -C: Costs (of fighting) |
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In the hawk-dove came, what is the payoff for H vs D?
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B for Hawk 0 for Dove
-B: benefits (resources that increase fitness) -C: Costs (of fighting) |
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In the hawk-dove came, what is the payoff for D vs D?
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No Hawks (0.5xB) for Dove
-B: benefits (resources that increase fitness) -C: Costs (of fighting) |
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When is it better to be a dove in the hawk dove game?
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When there is a cost of fighting, there is a cross over where it’s better to be a dove: Evolutionary Mixed Strategy
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When is it better to be a hawk int he hawk dove game?
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With no cost of fighting, it is much better to be a hawk.
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What is a population?
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Made up of individuals of a species within a particular area
-Each population lives in patches of suitable habitat |
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What are habitats?
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-Naturally exist as a mosaic of different patches
-Causes many populations to be broken into somewhat isolated subpopulations |
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What does population structure refer to?
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-Density and spacing of individuals within suitable habitats
-Proportion of individuals in various age classes -Mating systems -Genetic structure |
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What is population dynamic?
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Changing in size over time because: births, deaths, immigration, emigration
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What is a fundamental niche?
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Range of physical conditions over which a species can persist
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What is a Realized Niche?
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Further constraints by predators, pathogens, competitors, etc
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What is Ecological Niche Modeling?
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Using when you know about the fundamental niche to predict the distribution or organisms
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What is Dispersion?
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Spacing of individuals in a population with respect to one another. Variety of patterns
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What are the 3 types of dispersion?
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-Clumped: Discrete groups
-Random: Distributed independently of one another (not expected) -Evenly Spaced: Maintains a minimum distance from other individuals |
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What causes evenly spaced dispersion
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-May arise from interactions among individuals
-Competition for resources -Territoriality |
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What causes clumped dispersion?
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May arise from
-Social predisposition to form groups -Clumped distribution for resources -Tendency for progeny to be near parents |
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The degree to which subpopulations are isolated depend on what?
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-Distance from other subpopulations
-Nature of the intervening environment -Mobility of the species |
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What is the exception from populations existing in heterogeneous landscapes?
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Uniform habitats
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In the northern hemisphere, what are the conditions on the south facing slope?
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Warmer and drier
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In the northern hemisphere, what are the conditions on the north facing slope?
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Wetter and cooler
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Why are steep slopes xeric?
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They typically drain better and lead to arid environments
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Why are bottomland areas mesic?
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Typically near a river and moist, supports riparian forest
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