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331 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
6 kingdoms |
plantae, animalia, protista, fingi, archea, bacteria |
|
how many named species are there? |
1.8x10^6 |
|
Charles Darwin |
"Descent with Modification"
|
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Macroevolution |
formation of a new species |
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natural selection |
adaptation into ecological niche |
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microevolution |
changes in gene frequency in a population |
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evolution |
a process of change that starts with a change in gene frequency in a population which ultimately results in formation of a new species |
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natural selection |
the primary mechanism that causes evolutionary change |
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How many total species are there? |
10x10^6 |
|
alleles |
copy of a gene |
|
genotype |
genetic makeup |
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allele frequency |
P+q=1 |
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population genetics |
deals with allele and genotype frequency |
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Hardy-Weinberg equation |
P^2+2Pq+q^2=1 |
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Hardy- Weinberg principle- the proportion of genotypes in a population remains constant IF: |
1. the population is LARGE 2. random mating occurs 3. no mutations occur 4. no "new" genes are imported (No migration- genetic drift) 5. No selection occurs |
|
When does Hardy Weinberg eq. not work? |
1. small population 2. not random mating 3. "new" genes are imported 4. Mutation occurs 5. selection occurs |
|
Review hardy weinberg calculations |
|
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Sickle cell disease |
classic autosomal recessive genetic disorder |
|
5 factors that can change gene frequency |
1. mutation 2. migration 3. non random mating 4. genetic drift 5. natural selection |
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migration |
members of different populations exchange genes |
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Genetic drift: founder effect |
a few individuals become the originators of a "new" population |
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Distributive selection |
removes intermediate phenotypes |
|
directional selection |
eliminates phenotypes on end of a range |
|
stabilizing selection |
favors intermediate phenotype |
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Negative frequency- dependent |
rare phenotypes are favored |
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positive frequency- dependednt |
common phenotype |
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phenotype |
differences in expressed trait |
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adaptive selection theory |
hypothesized that natural environments are heterogeneous and several selective pressures are operating at any one time. Therefore, several alleles may be selected for at the same time |
|
neutral theory |
Kimura hypothesized that heterozygosity is proportionate to population size x mutation rate |
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fossil record |
continuous change can be observes in some fossils |
|
trends seen in horse evolution |
1. change in size 2. toe reduction 3. change in tooth size |
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homologous structure analogous structure |
"Same structure" "Same function" |
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vestigial structures |
structures with no function but common to other members of the evolutionary group |
|
sympatric |
occur together geographically
|
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allopatric |
occur in different locations |
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species clusters |
Evidence of rapid evolution |
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Biological Species Concept (BSC) |
Species are groups of interbreeding populations that are reproductively isolated |
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Phylogentic species concept |
species are groups of populations that have been evolving independently of other groups of populations. Therefore, a species is a population or a set of populations characterized by one or more shared characters |
|
3 domains of life |
bacteria, archea, eukarya |
|
problems with phylogenetic comparisons |
1. horizontal gene transfer (HGT) 2. multiple, independent of characteristics (Segmentation) |
|
protein- encoding genes |
Freq= 1.5 description= translated portions of 25000 genes scattered about the chromosomes |
|
pseudogenes (inactive genes) |
frequency= 2 (1/3 times bigger than protein encoding genes) description= sequence that has characteristics of a gene but is not a functional gene |
|
transposable elements |
frequency= 45 description= 21%: long interspersed elements (LINEs), which are active transposons 13%: short interspersed elements (LINEs), which are active transposons 8%: retrotransposons, which contain long terminal repeats (LTRs) at each end 3%: DNA transposon fossils |
|
pseudogenes can be "used" in new funtions |
ex: toxic venoms |
|
4.5 billion years ago |
Earth forms |
|
540 million years ago |
cambrian explosion in animal diversity |
|
250 million years ago |
Permian mass extinction (3rd mass extinction) |
|
65 million years ago |
non- avian dinosaurs become extinct (cretaceous- 5th mass extinction) |
|
homonids are most closely related to |
chimpanzees |
|
bipedalism |
3.7 mil. y/o footprints |
|
tool use appears |
2.5 million years ago |
|
braincase expansion increases |
~2 million years ago |
|
oldest known homonid, discovered in 1994 Ethiopia (4.4 million years old) |
Ardi pithecus ramidus (Ground ape root) |
|
Raymond Dart (1924) (2.8 million years old) |
Astralo pithecus africanus (southern ape africa) |
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"Lucy" most complete skeleton (1974) (3 mil. years old) |
Astralo pithecus afarensis (southern apre afar desert) |
|
Homo habilis (1960s) |
man "handy"- tool usage- (*Many scientists put into Homo Habilis*) |
|
Homo Rudolfenis (1972) |
man Lake Rudolf Northern Kenya (1.9 million years old- (*Many scientists put into Homo Habilis*) |
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Homo Ergaster |
man work- (*Many scientists put into Homo Habilis*) |
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Homo erectus |
man upright- first "true man" |
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Homo sapiens |
man wise arise about 200,000 years ago from Homo erectus |
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H. erectus migrated out of africa ___ years ago and lived in Asia until ____ years ago |
500,000 250,000 |
|
Homo Floresienss |
Dwarf- "The Hobbit" |
|
Homo neanderthalis |
"thal" german for valley, 500,000-30,000 years ago- first evidence of symbolic thinking |
|
H. Sapiens migrated out of Africa |
~40,000 YA |
|
May 2010 |
H. neanderthal Nuclear Genome Sequenced -3 females from Croatia dating back 38,000 YA -1-4% of European & Asian Nuclear DNA matches H. neanderthal |
|
Which population shows the greatest genetic diversity? |
African |
|
What makes an animal? |
-multicellular -hetertrophis -no cell wall -active movement -diverse in form 1. invertebrates- 99%of species 2. vertebrates- 50,000-60,000 species - diverse in habitat -stereotyped embryonic development -unique tissues |
|
embryonic development |
sperm+egg=zygote >morula >blastula >grastula >somite formation > organogenesis |
|
ectoderm tissues |
1. ectoderm (outer layer) 2. endoderm (inner layer) 3. Mesoderm (middle layer) |
|
adult tissues |
epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous |
|
symmetry |
radial or bilateral |
|
acoelomate |
no coelomic cavity |
|
pseudocoelomate |
"false" pseudocoel |
|
coelomate |
"true" coelomic cavity |
|
protostome |
mouth developes first |
|
deutrostomes |
anus develops first - echinodermata - chordata |
|
controls segmentation |
Hox gene family (homeotic genes) "master switch" genes |
|
animal kingdom has ___ phyla |
35 |
|
Parazoa (subkingdom) |
lack definity symmetry lack tissues phylum prolifera- sponges |
|
eumetazoa (subkingdom) |
all have tissues radial symmetry- cnidaria, ctenophores (diploblastic) bilateral symmetry- everyone else |
|
evolution of the animal body plan |
1. tissues 2. symmetry 3. body cavity 4. patterns of development 5. segmentation |
|
Phylum Prolifera |
sponges: no true tissues 7000 marine species 150 fresh water reproduce sexually and asexually |
|
Phyllum cnidaria (about 10k species) |
1. Class Hydrozoa- 2700 species 2. Class Scyphozoa- Jellyfish- 200 species 3. class Cubozoa- box jellyfish- box 40 species (very toxic) 4. class anthozoa- sea anemones& corals- 6200 species 5. class staurozoa- star jellies- ~50 species (originally in scyphozoa) |
|
phyllum Ctenophora |
comb jellies- seal walnuts, sea gooseberries ~100 species |
|
protostomes> spiralia >platyzoa |
trochophore (free living larva) , lophophore (feeding structure) |
|
Phylum Platyhelminthes characteristics |
flatworms- 20k species incomplete GI Hermaphroditic |
|
Phylum Platyhelminthes |
1. Tubellaria- Planaria 2. Neodermata- parasitic class- trematoda- liver flukes 10k species Cercomeroporpha (old cestoda)- tapeworms & relatives Schistomiasis- blood flukes (200 mil infected, 800k+ die/yr |
|
Phylum Rotifera- |
ciliated 1800 species |
|
phylum Cycliophora |
ring of cilia, lobster symbionts |
|
Bryozoa |
moss animals- exclusively colonial ~4000 species |
|
Brachiopoda |
lamp shells, look like bivalves (mollusks), but shells are dorsal/ ventral ~300 species extant 30,000 species extinct |
|
phoronids (10 species) |
now part of brachiopoda |
|
Brachiopoda & bryozoa |
display a mixture of protostome and deuterostome features |
|
phylum Molluska (110,000 named species) |
2nd largest group of animals 8 classes have 3 chambered heart |
|
body plan of mollusks |
visceral mass- digestive organ, reproduction, excretion mantle- folds enclosing a cavity NOT the coelem! radula- rasping tongue like organ gills- in mantle nephridia- early kindey |
|
3 distinct body sections of mollusks |
heas, visceral mass, foot |
|
classes of phylum mollusca (only focus on 4 of 8) |
1. polyplacophora- chitons- marine ~8 overlapping plates 2. gastropods- (foot) nails and slugs ~40,000 3. Bavalvia (bivalves) Clams, scallops, mussels, oysters ~10,000 species 4. Cephalopoda (Head- foot) octopii, squids, nautilus ~600 species |
|
Phylum Nemertea characteristics (similar to platyhelminthes) |
Ribbon worms 900 species complete GI tract largest member is about 60 meters long |
|
round worm |
true coelomate, serial segmentation, closed circulation
|
|
Phylum Annelida classes (over 12,000 species) |
1. Polychaeta- bristly worms, clan worms ~8,000 marine species 2. clitellata (new class- old class: oligochaeta)- earth worms ~3,100 species 3. class Hirudinea- 500 species |
|
Hirudo medicinalis |
leach- Used in Blood letting to release "bad humors" |
|
Hirudin |
protein that stops blood clotting- anticoagulant |
|
coagulation |
clotting |
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heart attack- Myocardial Ischemia (heart lack of blood flow) |
blood vessel bocked |
|
heart attack treatment |
-surgically- put in stent medically- Thrombolytics: lyse the clot |
|
anticoagulants (prevent clotting) |
heparin, warfarin |
|
phylum- Nematoda |
- round worms 20,000 species
|
|
Pin worm |
Enterobius Vermicularis |
|
Filariasis (elephantiasis) |
invade lymphatics, block edema (250 x 10^6 infected) |
|
Arthropod body plan |
triploblastic- 3 primary tissues bilateral symmetry true coelem segmentation Innovations: -joined appendages -exoskeleton |
|
fused segments |
Tagmata |
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arthopod body plan cont. |
fused segments compound eye open circulatory system ventral chain of ganglia (nervous system) respiratory system -trachae -gills (book lung, book gill) excretory system -malphigan tubules |
|
arthropod classes |
1. trilobites- extinct 2. Chelicerata- fangs, book lungs- 57,000 species 3. Myriapoda- subclass Chilopoda- centipede- 1 pair of app. per seg., often poisonous ~3,000 species subclass Diplopoda- 2 pairs of app. per seg. herbivores, 10,000 spec. Crustacea- 35,000 species 4. Class Hexapoda- insects |
|
Class Chelicerata |
orders: 1. archanaae- spiders, 35,000 species 2. acari- mites & ticks, 30,000 species |
|
horseshoe crap |
first evolves ~450 mil. YA |
|
cost of an exoskeleton |
simple, metamorphasis vs. complete metamorphasis 90% if insects instars- stages between molts |
|
Phylum Echinodermata characteristics |
Spiny skin endoskeleton 6,000 species |
|
Phylum Echinodermata classes |
1. class- Crinoidea- sea lilies, feather stars- 600 species 2. Asteroidea- sea stars- 1500 species 3. Ophiuroidea- Brittle Stars- 2000 species 4. Echinoidea- sea urchins, sand dollars- 950 species 5. Holothuroidea- sea cucumbers- 1500 species |
|
characteristics of chordates |
coelomates deuterostomes jointes appendages segmentation notochord- "New" ~60,000 species |
|
subphylla of phylum Chordata |
1. Subphylum urochordata- tunicates ~1250 species 2. Cephalochordata- Lancelets- Genus Branchiostoma of Amphioxus ~23 species 3. subphylum Vertebrata- fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals |
|
characteristics of vertebrates |
vertebral column "head"- craniate vertebrates neural crest> neural tube extoderm> CNS complex internal organs endoskeleton of cartelage or bone |
|
Fish |
more than half of all vertebrates most divers vertebral group |
|
Ostracoderms |
shell skinned jawless fish (extinct) |
|
Agnathans |
modern jawless fish class: Myxini- hagfish Cephalaspidomorphi- lampreys |
|
characteristics of fish |
-gills- located in back of pharynx, extracts O2 from water, blood and water move countercurrent -vertebral column -single loop, closed blood circulation "heart" is muscular tube 2-4 "chambers", single circuit - nutritional deficiences arise inability to synthesize aromatic amino acids |
|
Class Chondrichthyes |
-"Cartilage fish" ~850 species - skates, sharks, ras - no swim bladders - highly streamlined swimmers -teeth arise from skin |
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osteichthyes |
bony fish ~30,000 species |
|
class actinopterygii |
ray finned- evolved in fresh water 1. swim bladder 2. lateral line system 3. gill cover (operculum |
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Class Sarcopterygii |
lobe finned- coelacanth- gives rise to amphibians |
|
Evolution of the jaw |
jaws evolve from anterior gill arched of ancient jawless fish teeth develop from modified scales |
|
swim bladdr |
high O2 concentration some fish fill swim bladder by gulping air other species "secrete" O2 into bladder |
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Amphibians |
"both lives" -invade the land- develop legs -develop "lungs"- breathe by gulping -some sutaneous "respiration" develop "skin" -changes in circulation- partially divided heart, pulmonary veins - still need water to reproduce |
|
class amphibia orders |
1. anura- frogs/toads- 4200 species 2. Urodela (caudata) visible tail- Salamanders, newts- 500 species 3. apod (Gymnophiona) No feet- Caecilian- 150 species |
|
class reptilia |
~7000 species (3 species of reptiles to every 2 mammals) - fully adapted to land 1. dry skin- develop dry watertight skin w/ keratin 2. more complex lungs- thoracic breathing 3. amniotic egg |
|
Class Reptillia orders |
1. squamata- suborder Suaria- Lizards 3800 species suborder serpentes- snakes 3000 species 2. Chelonia- turtles and tortoises- 250 species 3. crocodylia- crocodiles, alligators- 25 species 4. Rhynchocephalia- Tuataras- 2 species |
|
aves |
only 4 groups have evolved ability to fly: insects, pterosaurs, birds, bats key characteristics- 1. feathers: provides lift for flight and insulation of body heat 2. flight skeleton- fused clavicles, keeled sternum |
|
Class Aves- 8600 species, 28 orders |
order Passeriformes- song birds- 60% of all birds 5276 species |
|
mammals characteristics |
1. hair 2. mammalary glands 3. endothermy 4. placenta 5. teeth- heterdont dentition |
|
class mammalia ~4500 species |
monotremes- egg lying mammals- duck billed platypus, echidna (spiny ant eater) Marsupials- pouched animals- 280 species- Australia, Virginia oppossum Placental mammals- 17 orders |
|
homeostasis |
dynamic mechanisms that detect and respond to deviations (changes) in key Physiologic variables from their "set point" values |
|
examples of controlled variables |
blood pressure, Po2, Pco2, pH, Body temp |
|
temp regulation |
sweating/ shivering |
|
muscle types |
skeletal- straited, voluntary
cardial- heart smooth- GI, lung, blood vessels |
|
levels of muscle organization |
skeletal muscles, muscle fibers, myofibril, myofilaments |
|
A bands |
dark, remains same size |
|
I bands |
light, decreases in thickness when contracted |
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rigor mortis |
stiffening of the joints of a body a few hours after death, usually lasting from 1-4 days |
|
skeletal muscle must be ___ to contract |
innervated |
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motor unit |
1 motor neuron and all the muscle fibers (cells) that IT connects to & activates |
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types of neurons |
PNS, CNS |
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white matter |
signal transmisstion lines |
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gray matter |
info processing |
|
types of electrical activity in cells potential= diff. in carge density between 2 places |
1. resting membrane potential: all living cells 2. action potential: nerve cell (axons), muscle cell plasma membranes 3. synaptic (generator) potential: neuron- neuron synapses, neuron- muscle cell synapses (such as neuromuscular junction OR motor end plate |
|
resting membrane potential |
all living cells have an electrical charge difference (potential) between the inside and outside of the cell
|
|
electrical potential is because of... |
diff. in ions between inside and outside of cell |
|
Nernst equation- this equation defined the membrane potential due to the ratio of ion concentrations inside and outside cell |
E= 61.5log ([ion]o/[ion]i) (outside/inside) |
|
"local" potential |
-graded -spreads iin all directions - travels just inside and outside membrane (EM wave- traavels @ speed of light) - as soon as you remove stimulus- effect stops passive (with regard to the membrane) |
|
action potential (all or none response) |
when you reach a threshold and the membrane begins to change on its own always have the same amplitude travels down the neuron- self boosting |
|
VOC |
Voltage activated (Operated Channels |
|
myelinated neurons |
"insulated" |
|
Synaptic Potentials (also called generator potentials) |
-Graded (inc. stimulus, inc. depolarization) -Release of neurotransmitter (pre synaptic membrane) -Derives ROCs (Receptor Operator Channels) Acetyl Choline Receptor- (post synaptic membrane) |
|
CNS |
Brain, spinal cord |
|
Peripheral Nervous system |
sensory pathways Motor pathways- somatic (voluntary) nervous system, automatic (involuntary) nervous system- sympathetic division, parasympathetic division |
|
neurotransmitters |
actetyl choline, glutamate, norepinephrine Noradrenalin), dopamine, serotonin |
|
2 main ways to encode a signal |
1. frequency modulation (FM) 2. Amplitude Modulation (AM) |
|
brain regions |
Telencephalon- cerebrum Diencephalon- thalamus & hypothalamus mesencephalon- mid- brain metencephalon- pons & celebellum myelecephalon- medulla oblongata |
|
spinal cord functions |
spinal reflexes, relays sensory and motor info |
|
medulla oblongata functions |
sensory nuclei, reticular- activating system (alertness), autonomic functions |
|
pons functions |
reticular- activating system, autonomic functions |
|
cerebellum functions |
coordination of movements, balance |
|
midbrain (mesencephalon) function |
reflexes involving eyes and ears |
|
thalamus function |
relay station for ascending sensory and descending motor tracts, autonomic functions |
|
hypothalamus functions |
autonomic functions, neuroendocrine control |
|
basal ganglia function |
motor control |
|
corpus callosum function |
connects and relays info between the 2 hemispheres |
|
hippocampus (limbic system) functions |
memory, emotion |
|
cerebral cortex functions |
higher cognitive functionds, integrates and interprets sensory info, organizes motor output |
|
Brain facts |
CNS- 100x10^9 neurons synapses 100x 10^12-14 |
|
synapses |
where the info processing happens- 1 neuron may have up to 400,000 synapses |
|
current super computers |
can simulate about 1% of the neurons in the crebral cortex |
|
50%-70% of embryonic neurons undergo ___ |
apoptosis- programmed cell death |
|
endocrine |
secreted into the blood |
|
paracrine |
local secretion -endothelial cells- PGI2 -smooth muscle cells- vasodilate |
|
autocrine |
secreted by the same cell type lymphocytes- interleukins |
|
2 types of hormones |
hydrophillic- polar lipophillic- nonpolar |
|
anterior pituitary secretion |
ACTH, FSH, GH, Prolactin, MSH, TSH |
|
posterior pituitary secretion |
ADH (Vasopressin), Oxytocin |
|
Hypothalamo |
Pituitary Portal System |
|
T3, T4 |
inc. metabolism |
|
TG |
thyroglobin (colloid) |
|
thyroid cells |
both T3 and T4 are active hormones |
|
goiter |
hypothyroidism, decreased TH secretion damage to thyroid, Iodine Deficiency now Auto-immune Disease in US Hashimoto's disease more common in females |
|
hyperthyroid- thyrotoxicosis |
Grave's disease- antibodied against the TSH receptor but there antibodies stimulate the receptor inc. TH release heat intolerance, Eyeball bulge thyroid crisis can lead to death |
|
Increased GH leads to |
Giantism- before puberty acromegaly- after puberty most often caused by pituitary tumor prominent jaw |
|
Dwarfism |
dec. GH and/ or insulin- like growth factor |
|
stress |
cortisol |
|
diabetes mellitus |
inc. urine, more glucose in urine, lack of insulin |
|
diabetes insipidus |
lack of ADH from posterior pituitary |
|
circulatory system in unicellular organisms |
O2, nutrients, waste exchange by diffusion |
|
multicellular organisms circulatory system |
need to move stuff to and from each cell by convection such as hydraulic pressure |
|
major function of the circulatory system |
transport |
|
Vertebrate circulatory system functions |
1. transportation- gas exchange, nutritive, excretory 2. regulation- hemostasis 3. inflammation and immune response |
|
circulatory system |
1. heart (pump) 2. vessels (pipes) 3. the fluid (blood) |
|
levels of organization |
organ system> organ> tissue> cell |
|
the heart provides ___ to move the fluid around the vessels |
connective force |
|
different types of flow |
1. concurrent 2. countercurrent 3. cross current |
|
vasoconstriction |
to retain heat in the body |
|
vasodilate surface blood vessels |
to get rid of excess heat |
|
hematocrit= |
volume of RBC/ total volume |
|
plasma |
liquid portion of the blood ~55% by volume in mammals contains -H2O -salts -glucose -metabolites |
|
plasma proteins |
synthesized by liver- & are important to osmotic regulation of fluid |
|
serum is not plasma |
|
|
phagocyte |
"eating" cell |
|
1. RBC's |
erythocytes mucleated in all vertebratesexcept mammals contains mostly hemoglobin 45% by volume |
|
WBC |
leukocytes |
|
platelets |
no nucleus in mammals- function in hemostasis |
|
hematopoiesis |
blood cell development |
|
growth factors (such as cell EPO) controls cell ___ |
differentiation |
|
anemia |
dec. RBC mass "no blood" |
|
polycytosis |
inc. # of RBC |
|
Leukopenia |
Dec # of WBC |
|
Leukocytosis |
inc. # of WBC |
|
Neutropenia |
dec. # of neurophils |
|
Granulocytopenia |
dec. # of granulocytes
|
|
thrombocytosis |
inc. # of platelets |
|
thrombocytopenia |
dec. # of platelets |
|
Hemostasis |
prevention of blood loss -platelet response -fibrin clot |
|
arterioles |
resistance vessels biggest pressure drop |
|
veins |
capacitance vessels largest blood volume storage |
|
systemic circulation |
aorta> vena Cava |
|
pulmonary circulation |
pulmonary artery> pulmonary vein |
|
edema |
too much interstitial fluid buildup |
|
hemostasis vs. thrombosis |
normal vs. abnormal |
|
platelet active drugs (anti- platelet |
aspirin, clopigrel (plavix), GPIIbIIIa (fibrinogan receptor inhibitors) |
|
anti- coagulant drugs (prevents clot) |
heparin, warfarin, thrombin inhibitors- Hirudin- Angiomax |
|
thrombolytic drugs (breaks clot) |
tissue plasmingen activator (tpa), strepokinase (originally from streptococcus) |
|
blood pressure= |
cardiac output x vascular pressure |
|
blood pressure |
is the defended and regulated physiologic variable of the cardiovascular systern |
|
Sensors/ receptors in the cardiovascular system |
baroreceptors |
|
why discuss blood pressure when we really want to know about blood flow? |
1. there much be a diff. in pressure for flow to occur 2. the larger the pressure difference, the greater the flow 3. the larger the radius, more flow |
|
Ascites |
edema- peritonal space liver problems |
|
circulatory system of fish |
one single loop circulation |
|
amphibians and mpost reptiles have__ chambered heart: |
3, beginning separation of pulmonary (lung) and systemic circulations |
|
crocodiles have ___ chambered heart |
4 |
|
human and bird circulatory systems |
4 chambered heart 2 circulations in series -pulmonary circuit (right ventricle) -systemic circuit (left ventricle) |
|
C.O= |
SV x HR |
|
Resistance= |
(8n^L)/((pi)r^4) n= viscosity |
|
gap junctions |
cardiac cells can act as one unit |
|
calcium channels |
in cardiac muscle, not skeletal |
|
cardiac valves |
pulmonary, tricuspid, mitral, and aortic |
|
cardiac valves do not open or close because they are contracting, nor because of |
nerve impulses to them
|
|
P wave |
atrial depolarization |
|
QRS |
ventricular depolarization |
|
T wave |
Ventricular repolarization need coordinated depolarization to get coordinated contraction |
|
pressures involved |
right side- pulmonary, low pressure left side- systemic, high pressure |
|
why different pressures in the two circuits? |
left has higher pressure because it has more area to cover |
|
Integrating center |
cardiovascular center in the medulla oblongata |
|
parasympathetic efferent pathway |
cranial- saccaral |
|
sympathetic efferent pathway |
thoracic- lumbar |
|
Multicellular organisms usually need to get gases to an exchange "surface" This is done by |
bulk flow or convective movement
|
|
look at partial pressure problems |
kill yourself while youre ahead, friend |
|
Henry's Law |
as temp inc. amt. of gas dec. |
|
Processes of the Respiratory system |
1. ventilation- conective movement of O2- CO2 2. Gas exchange- diffusive movement of O2+ CO2 (Fick's Law |
|
amphibian respiration |
respiration through skin/ lungs take advantage of more )2 in the air -skin highly vascularized -moist (usually) |
|
Reptiles |
scaly skin- prevents H20 loss but also prevents gas exchange more efficient lung structure use Thoracic (chest) expansion & contraction for ventilation negative pressure more efficient |
|
aves |
high metabolic demands, limit on weight, very efficient ventilation and gas exchange, lightweight |
|
advantages of aves |
efficient, lightweight |
|
Patm= |
760 mmHg |
|
PO2= |
160mmHg |
|
PO2 at mitochondria~ |
10 |
|
Need Hemoglobin for |
carrying O2 |
|
Why Hemoglobin to carry O2? |
1. poor H2o solubility of O2 2. O2 bloodto Hb is not part of O2 gradient - binding "sink" |
|
Henry's coefficient |
0.003 mLO2/100mL blood/ mmHg |
|
arterial blood |
5%Hb 90% HCO3- 5% dissolved |
|
Renal Excretion equation |
E=(F+S)-R E= renal excretion F=glomerular filtration S= Tubular Secretion R= Tubular reabsorption |
|
3 mechanisms of urine formation |
1. glomular filtration 2. tubular reabsorption 3. tubular secretion |
|
pH plasma |
7.4 |
|
osmolarity= |
molarity x formable ions |
|
blood osmolarity= |
300 mOsm |
|
sea water osmolarity= |
100 mOsm |
|
"normal" saline |
0.9 NaCl = blood osmolarity |
|
vertebrate nephron principles |
1. filter everything - reabsorb back desired stuff 2. H2o follows Na+, Cl- - control Na+ movement> control H2O movement |
|
urinary space is the space___ |
inside the nephron |
|
only mammals and birds can make ____ |
concentrated urine |
|
loop of henle |
countercurrent multiplier which makes a concentrated medullary interstitium |
|
vasa recta |
a countercurrent exchanger which carries excess water |
|
reabsorption mechanisms |
1. PCT osmotic reabsorption 2. Na+- K+ ATP pump in PCT |
|
Chondrihthes |
cartilaginous fish, use high levels of urea for osmotic balance |
|
Fresh water fish |
needs to excrete extra H2O and save Na+ |
|
marine fish |
needs to excrete high levels of Na+ and save H2O |
|
Amphibians |
much like fresh H2O |
|
Reptiles |
Some like friesh H2o fish, others like marine fish |
|
many mammals cannot drink ___ |
sea water |
|
nitrogenous waste |
azotemia, Ammonia is very toxic to cells |
|
hormonal control of renal function |
1. Aldostrone- steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex- cause distal convoluted tubule to reabsorb sodium 2. ADH (Vasopressin)- secreted from the posterior pituitary- causes water to be reabsorbed from the collecting duct into the medullary interstitium |
|
diuresis |
put out urine |
|
exocrine function |
- HCO3- secretion - enzyme secretion |
|
type 1 diabetes |
missing insulin |
|
type 2 dibetes |
insulin receptor not responding |
|
9 essential AA |
1. isoleucine 2. leucine 3. lysine 4. methioinine 5. phenylalanine 6. tryptophan 7. threonine 8. valine 9. histidine |
|
essential fatty acids (EFA) |
1. alpha- linolenic acid (ALA) 2. linoleic acid (an omega- 6 fatty acid) 18:2 |
|
meroblastic cleavage |
uneven cleavage of yolk- fish reptiles and birds |
|
hCG |
human chorionic gonadotrophin- pregnancy test |
|
hemeotic genes determine___ in a developing embryo |
anterior- posterior, dorsal- ventral |
|
apoptosis |
programmed cell death- also important in host defense |
|
necrosis |
the other cell death due to cell damage |
|
ecology- |
the study of how organisms interact with one another and their environment |
|
levels of ecological organization |
1. populations 2. communities 3. ecosystems 4. biomes> biosphere |
|
population |
groups of individuals of the same species that live in the same place
|
|
community |
populations of different species living in the same place- an assemblage of organisms that share a habitat |
|
ecosystem |
a community and the nonliving (physical or abiotic) factors. (Has a "regulated" flow of energy) |
|
biomes |
major assemblies of small ecosystemsover a wide giographic area |
|
population dynamics |
"demgraphics"- statistical study of pop. 1. birth rate 2. death rate dependent on -age structure, sex ratio |
|
dN/dt=rN |
exp. growth model- N= number of individuals in a pop r- biotic potential- rate of a population growth |
|
r= (b-d)+(i-e) |
difference between birth rate and death rate (corrected for migration) assumes no limit on growth |
|
logistic growth model |
dN/dt=rN (K-N/K) |
|
human pop. growth |
growing exponentially |
|
community- |
all populations of different speciies in a geographic local |
|
ecological niche |
niche is the sum total of all the ways an organism utilizes the resources of its environment even though the terms are often used as synonyms |
|
potential vs. actual |
fundamental niche- the entire niche available vs. realized niche- what is actually occupied |
|
principal of compitive exclusion |
no 2 species can occupy the same niche indefinitely if resources are limting |
|
control cultures |
show how much is actually available 2-3 times more pop. size |
|
predation |
has effects not only on ecology, but also evolution of communities |
|
ecological succession |
communities have a stucture, communities undergo change to a progressively greater species richness |
|
ecosystem |
1. all the organisms in a place 2. all the physical (abiotic) components |
|
chemicals "___" through ecosystems |
cycle |
|
energy must ___ and flow through an ecosystem |
enter |
|
_% of all water tied up in ice |
2 |
|
4 compartments |
1. atmosphere 2. biomates 3. dissolved in water 4. fossil files |
|
increase in species diversity leads to a |
more stable community and ecosystem |
|
biomes |
biomes are a major widespread terrestrial ecosystems -major communities of organisms distributed over a wide land area - land area defined largely by regional climate |