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169 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Cytosol
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Aqueous 'gel' of the Cell
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Biosynthetic Factory
Give example. |
Some that makes Biological molecules.
Example= Endoplasmic Reticulum |
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Smooth ER
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Lipid Production....
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Rough ER
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Has Ribosomes and does Protein Production
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How does the protein 'know' to go into the ER?
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Signal Peptide= Cellular 'zip code'
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What happens to the protein in the ER?
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The protein folds through chaperones.
(if improper folding, the protein is destroyed) |
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How can protein be Modified?
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Cleavage (cutting, slicing, dicing)
And Attachment of Chemical Groups Ex. Attach a polysaccharide= Glycoproteins |
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Proteins and the Golgi apparatus.
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Shipping and receiving center...
Proteins leave the rough ER and travel to the Golgi apparatus. Does the sorting/shipping. Ships to the plasma membrane, to the outside of the cell (secreted), Lysosome? |
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Lysosome
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Digestive compartments/ Recycling Center.
Contains hydrolytic enzymes that break down macromolecules. pH of compartment= around 5; optimum for hydrolytic enzymes. |
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Lysosomal Storage Diseases
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Tay Sachs disease
Lysosomal enzyme normally breaks down lipid surrounding nerve cells. Defective enzyme= lipid accumulates= nerve damage= death Pompe's disease. Mutation causing a non functional enzyme. Glycogen builds up in muscle and liver cells= organ destroyed. |
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Knock out mouse
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missing the defective enzyme== lives but muscle weakness.
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Cystic Fibrosis
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Mutation of the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Regulator (CFTR)
Mislocalized, Misfolded, Misunderstood-- Protein doesn't go where its supposed to. Pump doesn't work= sticky mucus. DeltaF508 deletion= protein seen as abnormal and degraded in the ER |
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Peroxisomes
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Break Down Molecules
ex. Fatty Acids (Cellular Mecromolecule) !!!!! |
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Mitochondria
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Chemical energy conversion--
Glucose + oxygen yields, water+ carbon dioxide+ ATP The Powerhouse of the Cell |
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Cellular respiration
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Energy extracted from chemical bonds in food, put into usable form (ATP)
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Chloroplasts
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Capture of light energy
Water + Carbon Dioxide + Light = Glucose + Oxygen |
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Photosynthesis
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Conversion of solar energy to chemical energy.
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Cytoskeleton
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Functions= Structural Support, Motility, Cell division, regulation of cell activities.
Microfilaments= built up by Actin subunits Intermediate Filament= ? Microtubule= built up by Tubulin subunits |
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Motor Proteins
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'Molecular motors' - Able to move along surface.
ATP causes shape change, allowing motor proteins to 'walk' |
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Kinesin
Dynein |
Travel along microtubules between organelles
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Myosins
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travel along actin filaments (muscular system)
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Organic Molecules
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Carbon Containing-
ex. Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic Acids |
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Nucleotides
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5-Carbon Sugar
Phosphate Group Nitrogenous Base |
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Nitrogenous Bases
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Cytosine
Adenine Guanine Uracil (in RNA) Thymine (in RNA) |
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DNA sugar/ # of strands
+ RNA sugar/ # of strands Define. |
DNA= Deoxyribose, 2 strands
RNA= Ribose, 1 strands |
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Name for many nucleotides added together..
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Polynucleotide
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What has directionality?
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Nucleic Acid
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-OH
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_OH?!?!?!?
what about it |
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double-stranded helix?
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DNA
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DNA Strands are....
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Anti parallel -- meaning they run in opposite directions in accordance to its 3 prime and 5 prime ends
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Base pairings
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A to T
C to G And vice versa... Complementary base pairing (1 ring to 2 rings)... should have even width. |
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Organization of DNA in Eukaryotic cells....
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Chromosomes= Long linear DNA molecules
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?!?!?
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?!!??!
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Basic Replication
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1. DNA strand is there.
2. Strands seperate. 3. New strands made- complementary to template strand. 4. Result: two DNA molecules identical to original. |
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Replication Bubble
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?
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Replication Fork
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?
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Helicase
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Unwinds the double helix
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Topoisomerase
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Deals with the supercoiling of the helix.
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What stablizes the replication bubble?
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Single-stranded binding proteins.
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In what direction are new strands made for DNA
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5 prime to 3 prime.
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What will make a new complementary stand of DNA (to the template)?
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DNA Polymerase (III)
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ But^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Needs a 3 prime - OH to work. |
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Primase
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Adds a short (about 100 nucleotides) to RNA primary. ====>> Single-stranded RNA complementary to DNA.
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Continuous Synthesis Leading Strand
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Starting at the DNA's 3 prime end.... The new RNA strand can run continuous towards the DNA's 5 prime end (thus, the RNA runs in the classic 5 prime to 3 prime direction).
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Discontinuous Synthesis Lagging Strand
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Where RNA still runs in the 5 prime to 3 prime direction, but in fragments since the DNA strand that it is on is split at the 5 prime end (see diagram).
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Okazaki Fragments
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Discontinuous Synthesis Lagging Strand.
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WHat remove the RNA primers
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DNA Polymerase (I)
^ ^ ^ ^ Also ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Fills in the gaps on the lagging strand created by the discontinuous fragments |
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Ligase
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Connects the pieces of DNA at the end.
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Telomerase
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Elongates chromosomes ??
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Cell Senescence
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Death of the cell.
Limited to about 40 divisions/cell <= Then its too short after that. |
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Why do cells die?
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1. Chromosomes too short
2. Loss of important genetic info? 3. With telomeres gone, chromosomes fuse/degrade. |
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Telomerase
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Enzyme that can extend telomeres.
^ ^ ^ If a cell makes telomerase^ ^ ^ Then the chromosomes shorten. |
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Where is Telemerase?
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Cells of Embryo's
Stem Cells |
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Why isn't telemerase present in all cells?
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They could live forever
The fountain of youth!! |
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Repairing mistakes in DNA synthesis?
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DNA polymerase has a proofreading function -- fixes most errors.
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If DNA polymerase misses mistakes....
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Mismatch Repair System.
For example, there is a mismatch amongst base pairs, That area gets chopped out by nucleases, then DNA polymerase rewrites, ligase closes it up? |
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Excision Repair
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A thymine dimer distorts the DNA molecule
Fixes like Mismatch Repair System. |
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Aeroderma Pigmentosum
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Skin Cancer
Caused by an accumulation of Thymine DImers |
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Flow of information in the cell
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DNA gets transcribed, (RNA processing ensues), then turns into mRNA, mRNA exits the nuclear membrane, Translation occurs, now is a Polypeptide, which eventually turns into a functional protein.
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Transcription
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DNA into RNA.
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Types of RNA
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rRNA= Ribosomal RNA
tRNA= Transfer RNA mRNA= Messenger RNA |
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Does every one of your body cells contain your genome?
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Yes
About 30,000 genes in human genome |
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What is a Gene?
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?!?
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How many genes are transcribed in any given cell type?
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A subset of genes
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Transcription (second notecard)
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DNA goes to mRNA
or Gene goes to mRNA |
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RNA Polymerase
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Enzyme that makes RNA molecule
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Regulatory proteins
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Influence rate of transcription
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Promotor
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Specific nucleotide sequence where RNA polymerase attaches and begins transcription
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Regulatory Sequence
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Site for binding of regulatory proteins
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Transcribed Region
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Information that specifies an amino acid.
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Terminator
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Signals end of transcription.
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Codon
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"word" that specifies which amino acid is put in polypeptide
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When is a tRNA considered "charged"?
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When an amino acid is attached to it.
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What will an anticodon bind with?
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A complementary Codon in mRNA
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Ribosomes
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Composed of proteins and rRNA's.
Made in the Nucleolus of the nucleus - cytosol. Subunits join for protein synthesis. |
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Cellular Respiration
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Glucose (C6 H12 O6) + 6 Oxygen (O2) yeilding 6 Carbon Dioxide (C O2) + 6 Water (H20) + ATP
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Phosphorylation
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Adding a phosphate to a protein.
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A protein is working when...
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It changes shape.
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Cristae
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Increase surface area of mitochondria
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Glycolysis (breakdown of sugars)
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Glucose converts to two pyruvate's (yields 2 ATPS)
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Pyruvate breakdown & Krebs cycle (Citric acid cycle)
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breakdown of pyruvates into Acetyl CoA
(basically yeilds 2 ATP) |
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Substrate-level Phosophorylization
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Enzyme grabs Phosphate from a phosphorylated molecule and transfers it to ADP.
4 ATP's yielded. |
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Electron Carriers
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Molecules that store electrons for later use
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Glycolysis/Krebs cycle
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Bonds broken/ new bonds formed
Electrons get shuffled (what happen to them????............oxidative phosphorylization) |
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Two electron carriers
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NAD+ (ready to pick up electron)
NAD+ + electrons = NADH FAD (ready to pick up electron) FAD + electrons = FADH2 |
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During oxidative phosphorylization, the electrons carried by NADH and FADH2 are used....
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To make more ATP
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Study Mitochodrian, Oxydative Phoshorylization diagram
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On the back of lecture!!!
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players in the oxidative phosphorylation game
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1) The Mitochodrian
2) The Electron Transport Chain Several Protein complexes in IMM. All complexes accept/donate electrons. 3 complexes are also proton pumps. 3) Protons (H+, hydrogen ions) 4) Oxygen, the final electron acceptor. 5) ATP synthase. |
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How many ATP's are made by OX PHOS?
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34
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How many ATP's are produced from an NADH? (per glucose molecule)
How many ATP's are produced from a FADH2? (per glucose molecule) |
NADH == 3 ATP/ glucose molecule
FADH2 = 2 ATP glucose per molecule Overall= 30 ATP from all NADH's and 4 from all FADH2's. |
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Anaerobic Respiration
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Lacking oxygen.
Single celled organisms can survive it. |
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Cell cycle= regulated.....
where and what are the checkpoints for the cell? |
G1 checkpoint= Check cell size, DNA integrity.
G2 checkpoint= Check cell size, Completion of replication, DNA integrity. Metaphase Checkpoint= Check that all chromosomes attached to kinetochores MT |
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Proto-Oncogenes
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Genes that encode signals, receptors, signaling molecules, control proteins.
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If Proto-oncogenes are mutated
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Oncogenes= Cancer causing genes
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T/F= In a population, dominant alleles are more abundant.
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FALSE
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Huntington's Disease
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incurable, fatal neurological disease.
But, the allele for huntington's is dominant, BUT not common. |
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Although a 2n individual can have only two alleles (at any one locus)...
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... There may be MULTIPLE alleles in a population.
ex. Blood Types. |
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LOOK AT BLOOD TYPES
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DIFFERENT TYPES AND COMBINATIONS
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Pedigrees
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Family tree tracking through generations.
Genetic traits in humans can be tracked through this. |
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T/F-- do dominant traits show up in every generation?
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TRUE
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How is the sex of an offspring determined?
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By the sex chromosome carried in the sperm.
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X Chromosome vs. Y chromosome
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X chromosome= lots of genes on the X chromosome.
Y chromosome= "genetic wasteland" |
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Males are _______ for sex-linked genes.
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HEMIZYGOUS- (only one copy of that gene)
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If there is a mutation in an X-linked for a male....
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they will be affected fo sho.
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Females will be phenotypically normal if....
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...mutant allele is recessive.
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DO PUNANT SQUARE PROBLEMS
AND PEDIGREES |
KNOW GENERAL RATIOS FOR PUNANT SQUARES
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Mutation
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Permanent change in DNA sequence
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Point mutation
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A single nucleotide base change in DNA
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Base pair mutation
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sometimes silent
Remember= Missense=different protein is added. Effects depend on where the protein is changed. |
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Sickle Cell Anemia
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Missense Mutation
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Prokaryotes reproduce by...
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Binary fission.
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Some eukaryotes reproduce by...
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mitosis/cytokinesis (asexual)
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Many eukaryotes consist of ...
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Two parents
Gamete production (through meosis) Gamete meets gamete (mitosis?) |
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Meosis's only use in eukaryote...
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Gamete production.
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In an animal... the female undergoes meosis to make...
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haploid egg.
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In an animal... the male undergoes meosis to make...
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haploid sperm.
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haploid egg + haploid sperm =
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Diploid zygote.
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T/F -- Daughter cells are not identical to parent?
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FALSE
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Nonsense
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Missense is which a stop message is in encoded.
Often very severe. ?? |
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Mitosis
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division of the nucleus
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Cytokinensis
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Division of cytoplasm and organelles
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Antibodies
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proteins that recognize and bind specific molecules
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What is epigenetics?
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The study of heritable changes in gene function without a change in the actual DNA.
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Based on the video and lecture, what types of chemical tag can modify gene
expression? Does this tag turn a gene on or off? |
?!?!?
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The video also talks about how DNA can become tightly wrapped
around histone proteins in the nucleus (see picture on right). How could tightly wrapping DNA modify gene expression (genes being transcribed into mRNA)? |
The piece of DNA doesn't get read???
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Typically, when agouti mice breed, most of the offspring are identical to the parents:
just as yellow, fat as pincushions, and susceptible to life-shortening disease. In a fascinating experiment, scientists fed female agouti mice drugs that caused them to methylate their DNA (the drug was given just before they mated with male agouti mice). What happened to the phenotypes of their offspring? |
They turned out norbal.
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Typically, when agouti mice breed, most of the offspring are identical to the parents:
just as yellow, fat as pincushions, and susceptible to life-shortening disease. In a fascinating experiment, scientists fed female agouti mice drugs that caused them to methylate their DNA (the drug was given just before they mated with male agouti mice). What did methylation do to the agouti gene that mothers passed to their offspring? |
It "turn it off" the gene.
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It was originally thought that the pattern of an individual's epigenome was thought
to be firmly established during early fetal development. Although that is still seen as a critical period, scientists have lately discovered that the epigenome can change in response to the environment throughout an individual's lifetime. What types of environmental factors are shown to be or could potentially be important in shaping the epigenome? |
A drought that starved the individual or, on the other hand, a surplus of food.
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It was originally thought that the pattern of an individual's epigenome was thought
to be firmly established during early fetal development. Although that is still seen as a critical period, scientists have lately discovered that the epigenome can change in response to the environment throughout an individual's lifetime. What happens to our epigenome when we age? |
?!?!?
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When scientists compared two types of mother rats - those that lick their offspring
after birth and those that neglect their newborns, they observed the following: The licked newborns grew up to be relatively brave and calm (for rats). The neglected newborns grew into the sort of rodents that nervously skitter into the darkest corner when placed in a new environment. Further research has shown that licking ultimately turns on genes that allow rats to deal with stress. These experiments indicate that experience shapes behavior and experience shapes the epigenome. What key experiment was carried out with these mice that indicated the epigenome, unlike the genome, was changeable (how were non-licked mice made to act like mice that had good parents)? |
?!?!?
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The critical period for epigenetic changes that are passed through several
generations appears to be during gamete formation. If your grandmother is passing an epigenetic legacy to you, when is her critical period? What about your grandfather? (When food supply available to grandparent affect future generations?) |
Grandmother= while she was in utero (an infant)-- the time when the grandmothers' eggs were forming.
Grandfather= Slow growth period, right before adolescence (when it's vital sperm making time). |
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Effects of pesticide exposure have been seen through how many generations?
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3 generations (I believe)
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3 causes of genetic variation
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1) Crossing over. 2) Independent assortment. 3) Random Fertilization.
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Dominant allele
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fully expressed in the organisms appearance even if only 1 allele is present.
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Recessive allele
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No noticeable effect on phenotype if dominant allele is present.
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Mendel Genetics overview
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P(arent) generation : 1 purple x 1 white
F1 generation : 4 purples F2 generation : 3 purples x 1 white |
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Other reason animals eat...
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Raw material for cell structure- ATP
Essential Nutrients |
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Ailmentary Canal
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Digestion System
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Four stages of food processing
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1) Ingestion (food enters body)
2) Digestion 3) Absorption 4) Elimination |
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Mechanical digestion
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Physical breakdown of food (chewing)
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Chemical digestion
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Enzymatic breakdown of food molecules
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polymer's are introduced to enzyme's and create....
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Monomers
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Polysaccharides +/or disaccharides are introduced to enzymes in the stomach and turn into....
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Monosaccharide's
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Triglyceryl is introduced to enzymes in the stomach and turn into...
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Fatty acids + Glycerol
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Where does chemical digestion of carbohydrates begin?
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In the mouth
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Salivary amylase
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Breaks down starch
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What does Saliva consist of?
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1) Salivary Amylase
2) Mucin 3) Anti-microbial agents |
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What does Mucin do?
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Lubricates food.
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What does antibacterial of the saliva do?
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It's our first line of defense.
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Bolus
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Food mixed with saliva
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Peristalsis
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Rhythmic movements of muscles that pushes food down to stomach.
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Bolus
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Food mixed with saliva
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What all does the stomach do?
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1) Churns Food.
2) Stores Food (although it isn't limitless) 3) Secretes Gastric Juice. |
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When does chemical digestion in the stomach start?
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When Gastric Juice is secreted.
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Two gastric juices
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Hydrochloric Acid (HCL)
Pepsin (Protease- Protein digesting enzyme). |
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What do parietal cells secrete in the stomach (when food is present) that acts as a "inactive precursor"
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Pepsinogen (inactive form of pepsin)
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What do chief cells secrete (when food is present)?
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Hydrochloric Acid
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What is significant about the interaction between Pepsinogen and HCL?
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When HCL interacts with pepsinogen (the inactive form), it makes pepsinogen become active by turning into Pepsin.
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What is the purpose of mucus in the stomach?
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Protective layer for the stomach wall.
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What also happens in the stomach wall to protect it from pepsin destroying it?
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RAPID MITOSIS.
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3 : 1 ratio...
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Heterozygous x Heterozygous
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1 : 1 ratio...
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Heterozygous x Homozygous recessive.
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Chemotherapy
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Inserts chemicals into bloodstream. Prevents mitosis. Shorten MT- Stop replication.
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Radiation Therapy
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Energy particles end up destroying DNA- destroying the cell.
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Antibodies
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Proteins that bind onto receptors, blocks or shuts down cell response.
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Antisense Drug
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Single stranded nucleic acid.
Binds to mRNA strand which blocks translation (makes mRNA double stranded) |
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Epigenetics Therapy
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Turns genes on/off (demethylization/ methylization)
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Angiogenesis Inhibitors
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Blocks formation of blood vessels.
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Thymine dimers
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bumps everything down..
what else? |
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Endoplasmic reticulum
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Makes proteins and adds chemical groups (like carbohydrates) then sends them to golgi apparatus.
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