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83 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Reflexes
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*An involuntary response to external stimulation*
-Triggered by specific stimuli -Survival implications -Precursors for later voluntary movement -Insight into nervous sys. health -Permanent or temporary ex: Eye blink, palmar grasp, sucking response |
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Postural Control - Motor Milestones
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-Head upright & stable (2 mo)
-Sitting w/o support (6 mo) -Stands alone (11 mo) |
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Locomotion - Motor Milestones
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-Rolls over (3 mo)
-Crawls, creeps (7 mo) -Walks alone (12 mo) -Walks up steps (17 mo) -Walks down stairs, alternating (4-5 yrs) -Gallops/skips (4-5 yrs) |
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Manual Control - Motor Milestones
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-Grasps objects (4 mo)
-Pincer grasp (9 mo) -Attempt to use spoon/fork (15 mo) -Eats w/ spoon (2-3 yrs) -Cuts paper w/ scissors (3-4 yrs) -Eats w/ fork (4-5 yrs) -Ties shoes (6-7 yrs) |
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Infant State
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Recurring pattern of arousal in the newborn, ranging from alert/vigorous/wakeful activity to quiet, regular sleep
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Infant Auditory Development
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-Infants can hear before birth
-Can hear all sounds in all languages, diminishes in 1st yr -Sound localization = locating sound in space (will search @ 4 mo) |
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Colic
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A prolonged period of unexplained crying by an infant
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Infant Development of Taste & Smell
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- Babies prefer mother's scent
- Taste develops prenatally - Taste preferences devel. early --> Amniotic fluid has diff tastes (prefer own) --> Breast milk has flavor |
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Cat in the Hat Study - Decasper & Spence (1986)
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- Mothers read "The Cat in the Hat" to fetuses 2x/day for last 6.5 weeks of pregnancy
-Newborns could suck one way to listen to mother's voice recording of "Cat in the Hat" or another way for a different book -Babies preferred listening to the book they were exposed to prenatally |
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Sound Localization
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Babies look towards the direction of a sound
-Develops at 4 months |
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Infant Development of Touch
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- Pain develops @ birth, prenatally (Changes in med. procedures)
- Mouth, palms, feet most sensitive to touch - Babies sensitive to hot/cold |
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Infant Development of Vision
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- Can detect brightness, movement
- Can visually track an object - Preference for faces -->Eyes & internal features = more attention -->Prefer mom's face -->Learning experiences in 1st days after birth may influence preferences -->1-yr olds prefer attractive faces |
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3 Aspects of Infant Vision
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1) Visual Acuity (Clarity)
- Poor, can't perceive whole forms from far away - Elements of complex patterns can attract attention 2) Color Perception - Limited color vision - Color distinction after 3 mo 3) Depth Perception - Rely on depth/distance cues available to each eye independently - Eye coordination @ 3-5 mo - Improves rapidly (adult acuity by 6-12 mo) |
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Depth Perception & Locomotion Study (Bertenthal & Campos, 1994)
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- Prelocomotor vs. Postlocomotor
-Use of visual cliff -HR measured (decelerates in a state of non fearful attentiveness, accelerates as a defensive response) -All infants showed evidence for depth perception on deep side, but only locomotor infants had fear-related cardiac acceleration in response to heights - Walker experience = wariness of heights |
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Stereoscopic Vision
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Sense of a 3rd spatial dimension (depth), produced by brain's fusion of the separate images contributed by each eye
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Visual Cliff
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Apparatus that tests an infant's depth perception by using patterned materials and an elevated glass platform to make it appear that one side of the platform is several feet lower than the other
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Intermodal Perception
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Use of sensory info from more than one modality to identify a stimulus and make sense of it
The identification of a stimulus already identified by means of one modality by use of another modality ex: vision & hearing ex: smooth vs. knobby pacifier *Babies born w/ intermodal perception |
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Habituation-Dishabituation Paradigm
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-Present 1 stimulus repeatedly
-Visual fixation = interest -Initial interest fades w/ time & infant becomes bored/familiar to stimulus -New stimulus = Increased interest Dishabituation = Infant recognizes diff. bet. new and old stimulus -Infants can differentiate @ 4mo -Can present series of stimuli, allows to test categorization abilities |
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Visual Preference Method
(aka Preferential Looking Paradigm) |
-Show 2 stimuli at same time
-Measure time of visual fixation to each -Look at 1 longer = infant can differentiate between the two |
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Methods to Study Infants
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-Habituation-Dishabituation Paradigm
-Visual Preference Method -Operant Conditioning -Physiological responses --> Brain activity, stress hormones |
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Classical Conditioning
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1) Conditioned stimulus (CS) elicits no rxn
2) CS and unconditioned stimulus (US) elicits unconditioned response (UR) 3) CS elicits CR ex. Baby conditioned to fear a doctor |
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Operant Conditioning
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Learning to exhibit/inhibit some behavior because of the rewarding/punishing consequences it brings
ex. Cat in the Hat study |
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Cautilli, et al (2005)
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-35 wk old fetus
-Observed rate of kicking behavior over 4 successive 3-min periods -Verbal statements combined w/ gentle touch serves as reinforcer for in utero fetus to kick |
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Electroencephalogram (EEG)
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-Measures electrical output from brain
-Measures timing and rough locations of brain activity |
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Glial cell
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A nerve cell that supports & protects neurons and serves to encase them in myelin sheaths
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Neuron Proliferation
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The rapid formation of neurons in the developing organism's brain
~250,000 new neurons/min during embryonic period -Most neurons developed by 7 months gestation -100-200 billion neurons |
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Neural Migration
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The movement of neurons within the brain that ensures that all brain areas have a sufficient number of neural connections
"Always on the move" **Absence of right #neurons in right location assoc. w/ dyslexia, schizophrenia |
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Synapses
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Connection site of intercellular communication where info exchanged between neurons by means of neurotransmitters
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Synaptogenesis
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The forming of synapses
-Forms faster than neurons -Allows for increasingly complex communication |
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Neuronal Death
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Surrounding neurons die to provide more space for crucial loci of info transmission
aka Programmed Cell Death |
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Synaptic Pruning
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The brain's disposal of the axons/dendrites of a neuron that isn't often stimulated
-Frees up space for new synaptic connections -Increases efficiency & specialization -Occurs at diff. times for diff. parts of brain |
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Sequential Brain Development
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1) Motor Cortex
-Develops rapidly (reflex --> voluntary moves) -2 mo = rooting, startle response drop out 2) Visual Cortex -Huge proliferation bet. 4 - 12 mo -Vision enhances, skilled at focusing on objects at diff. distances 3) Hippocampus -Memory functions, fully functional @ 8-9 mo 4) Prefrontal Cortex -Involved in forethought/logic -Synaptic density devel. slower, reaches peak @1st yr |
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Hemispheric Specialization
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Differential functioning of the two cerebral hemispheres
-Left hemi controls right side -->Language, speed sounds, positive emotions -Right hemi controls left side -->Nonspeech sounds, negative emotions - |
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Heller, Nitschke, & Miller (1998)
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There are stable indiv. diff. in asymmetric brain activity across the lifespan
Predict important biases in emotional responsiveness to stress or challenge |
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Fox & Davidson (1988)
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-Infants who cry when faced with maternal separation displayed less left, more right anterior activity than babies who were not distressed
-Adults who show greater left anterior activity report more positive affect, engage in more approach behavior, respond more intensely to positive vs negative stimuli -Adults showing greater right anterior activity report more negative affect, engage in more avoidance behaviors, and respond more to negative vs. positive stimuli |
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Brain Plasticity
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Responsiveness of neural structures & f'ns to input from the environment
-Stimulation from environment plays critical role in brain development (Improves brain's efficiency by strengthening synapses and modifying brain chemistry) Ex: rats reared in enriched vs. impoverished environments |
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Grasping Behavior
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An infant's ability to reach, grasp, & pick-up objects enables exploration and learning
Pre-Reaching: uncoordinated swipes @ objects Directed-Reaching: 3 mo, complex/efficient pattern of reaching *Younger & older infants show sensitivity to size/shape of objects relative to hand size |
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Skills Implicated in Grasping (Bertenthal & Hofsten, 1998)
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1) Learning to control & balance neuromuscular forces
-->Ability to sit critical, 7 mo 2) Distance perception 3) Coordinating body parts 4) Mapping visual/tactile info to response patterns (visual perception) 5) Selecting hand to contact object |
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Developmental Progression of Grasping
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5-6 mo: baby uses ulnar/palmar grasp to trap object size of cube against palm
7-9 mo: develops a thumb-finger pincer grasp |
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Case-Smith et al. (1997)
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*Type of toy important (especially bet. transition periods)*
- Need to expose to fine motor toys - Haptic attributes: texture, color, size, etc |
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Role of Experience & Culture on Motor Development
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- More physical attention to babies = babies achieve motor milestones earlier
-Zambian babies left alone to practice motor skills = earlier devel. -Jamaican babies motorically advanced -Practice in motor behavior hastens walking |
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Ways Locomotion Affects Other aspects of Development
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- Increased independence
- Increased parent-child interaction - Development of fear of heights - Can deal w/ changes in spatial orientation |
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Factors Affecting Physical Growth
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1) Genetics
- Plays strong role in height & weight - Gender during puberty 2) Environment - Nutrition - Psychological disorders - Climate - Poor caregiving - Ethnicity |
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Catch-Up Growth
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The tendency for human beings to regain a normal course of physical growth after injury or deprivation
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Differentiating Crying (Kopp)
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- Very hard to determine diff. types of cries
- Mothers can distinguish cries of own kids - Mothers more skilled than fathers - Parents more skilled than non-parents |
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Gustafson & Harris (1990)
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Contextual Cues for Crying
- Know when child eats/naps/falls over lets you know what type of cry - No advantage of mothers over non-mothers *w/o contextual cues, mothers/non-parents/non-mothers can't distinguish |
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3 Theories of Language Acquisition
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1) Learning View
- Skinner (Operant Learning) 2) Nativist View - Chomsky (Inborn Universal Grammar) 3) Integrationist View - Bruner's Lang. Acquis. Support System (LASS) |
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Learning View of Language Acquisition
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Skinner - Operant Learning
Use of reinforcement, imitation to teach infant language |
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Nativist View of Language Acquisition
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Chomsky - Inborn Universal Grammar
The human nervous system incorporates an innate concept of language Kids sensitive to an environmental stimulus during a critical period for language learning |
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Integrationist View of Language Acquisition
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Bruner's LASS
Language is learned in the context of spoken language, and humans are in some way biologically prepared to learn how to speak |
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Bruner's Language Acquisition Support System (LASS)
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A collection of strategies & tactics that environmental influences (initially a kid's parents) provide the language-learning child
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Techniques for Language Development
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1) Non-verbal games (ex. Peekaboo)
2) Infant-Directed Speech - Simple sentences, talk slower, high pitch 3) Expansion - Imitate and add to a child's statement |
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Pragmatics
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Study of systemic relations between language & context
Set of rules that specify appropriate language for particular social context |
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Stages of Language Acquisition
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1) Cooing (1-2 mo)
2) Babbling (4 mo) --> Canonical --> Jargon 3) One-Word Stage (12-18 mo) 4) Two-Word Stage (18-24 mo) 5) Sentences (2 yr) |
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One-Word Stage
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-Words learned slowly
-Names of things, objects -Overextension |
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Tardif (1996)
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A cultural variation exists in learning during the one-word stage of language acquisition
*Asian languages = learn verbs 1st |
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Overextension
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Children overgeneralize during the one-word stage, using a single word to cover many diff. things
--> Could mean they don't understand the meaning of the word -->--> Recognition outpaces language production |
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Thompson & Chapman (1975)
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-Kids @ one-word stage asked to choose dog from a set of pics of a real dog, stuffed dog, others
--> They picked dog picture = they know what it means -->--> Recognition outpaces language production |
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Telegraphic Speech
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Two-word utterances that include only words essential to convent the speaker's intent
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Gonikoff et al. (1987)
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2 yr-old telegraphic speech speakers
Q: Do they look more at the action that's consistent w/ the audio more often than the other action? Audio1 --> Look longer @ Visual1 Audio2 --> Look longer @ Visual2 Young kids know more than their utterances suggest; see rapid increase in vocab, devel. syntax |
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Fernald et al. (1998)
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-72 infants (15 mo, 18 mo, 24 mo)
-Calculate infant's rxn time to seek correct pic -->15 mo infants demonstrated recog. of 4 target words by looking at the correct object named, but didn't initiate gaze until the target word was spoken -->24mo infants shift gaze to the correct object before end of the spoken word = make decisions based on incomplete acoustic information (like adults) **Neural reorganization** |
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Werker & Desjardins (1995)
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Babies are hardwired to learn any language at birth
This ability drops out @ 10 mo. when infants commit to a language |
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Language Acquisition in Deaf Children
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-Similar steps
-Learn sign language faster, earlier --> After 2yrs, differences disappear *Motor centers of brain devel. faster than speech centers |
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Metalinguistic Awareness
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Understanding that language is a rule-bound system of communicating
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Cognitive Development
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Study of how intellectual abilities and knowledge of the world change as a person grows older
-Perception -Learning -Memory -Reasoning Critical for social/emotional development |
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2 Broad Approaches to Cognitive Development
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1) Quantitative (Continuous) [based on age]
2) Qualitative (Discontinuous) [based on maturity, Piaget] |
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Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
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Constructivist View: children actively seek info and organize it into SCHEMAS
4 Stages: 1) Sensorimotor (0-2 yr) 2) Preoperational (2-7 yr) 3) Concrete Operational (7-12 yr) 4) Formal Operational (12+ yr) |
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Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development
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Behavioral Schemas
- Crawling, grasping, sucking, looking Transition from basic reflexes to beginnings of symbolic thought Object permanence develops -8-12 mo basic understanding -12-18 mo full understanding *Manual search task* |
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Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development
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- Emergence of symbolic representation
- Mental schemas -Inability to think logically (animistic thinking, ego-centricism, irreversibility) |
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Concrete Operational Stage of Cognitive Development
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Child is able to reason logically about materials that are physically present (no abstract thought)
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Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development
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Child is capable of abstract thinking, complex reasoning, hypothesis testing
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Egocentrism
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Tendency to view world from one's own perspective and to have difficulty seeing things from another's viewpoint
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Animistic Thinking
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The attribution of life to inanimate objects
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Reversibility
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Understanding that steps of a procedure or operation can be reversed and that the original state of the object can be obtained
*During preoperational stage, children do not have conservation of number/volume/mass |
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Three-Mountain Task
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Piaget's test for egocentrism
-Child asked to describe what the doll sees from another side of the 3 mountains -Preoperational kids can't consistency identify doll's view |
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Baillargeon' Object Permanence
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-Habituation-Dishabituation Paradigm
-Previous Problem: infants could not motorically move objects *Object permanence appears as early as 3 months *Car and block rolling down ramp study |
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Violation of Expectation (Baillargeon)
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- Introduce impossible event
- Object floating in space *Location & degree of support important -Initial concept: Support or no support -Infants identify discrete variable (locus of support), then continuous variable (amount of contact) |
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Dual Representation
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- Symbolic understanding, must mentally represent both the symbol itself and its relation to the referent
- Idea that objects have both a concrete and abstract nature (representational insight) |
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Factors Affecting Representational Insight
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- Degree of similarity bet. symbol & referent
- Degree of info provided about symbol-referent relation - Amount of prior experience child has w/ symbols **Depends on particular stimuli and situation |
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Credible Shrinking Room (DeLoache)
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-3 yr olds performed well, 2.5 yr olds performed poorly
-Younger children do better if the salience of the model is decreased (can't physically touch it = more symbol-like) -Non-symbolic task --> Shrunken room didn't represent larger room, IT IS the larger room |
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Impact of Culture on Cognition
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- Euro-American kids describe memories in relation to own feelings & experiences
- Chinese kids emphasize social roles & responsibilities - Siblings & parenting style play role in developmental process -Theory of mind develops around the world |
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Theory of Mind ("False Belief" Task)
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The understanding of the mind and how it works
-Tell a child a story, ask what a character in the story thinks (Younger children respond based on personal beliefs) ex. Max's candy is hidden in the cupboard. 3 yr-olds say candy is hidden in the drawer, b/c that's where their candy is hidden |
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Evidence of Reversibility
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Conservation of Volume: when a screen is placed in front of the short and tall glasses, children were able to conserve
--> Distracting changes in height/width of water column not visible to kids |