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89 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
solute |
a substance that is dissolved by a solvent |
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solvent |
a liquid which dissolves a solute |
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solution |
solvent + solute |
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passive transport |
methods of transport that do not require energy input |
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diffusion |
the movement of cules of a substance from areas of high to low concentration of the substance |
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osmosis |
the movement of a solvent through selectively permeable membrane from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration |
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isotonic |
the solute concentrations are the same within the cell and the external environment |
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hypertonic |
the cell has a higher solute concentration than the environment (cell is hypertonic) (Cell will burst) or the environment has a higher concentration than the cell (environment is hypertonic)(cell will shrink) |
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hypotonic |
the cell has a lower solute concentration than the environment (the cell is hypotonic) (cell will shrink) or the environment has a lower concentration than the cell (the environment is hypotonic) (cell will burst) |
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turgor pressure |
in plant cells, the net movement of water into the cell causes the central vacuole to push outward. |
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binary fission |
how prokaryotes replicate 1. circular chromosomes replicate 2. chromosomes separate 3. cytokinesis occurs |
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Cell Division in Eukaryotes |
Mitosis, interphase, (together form cell cycle) cytokinesis |
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functions of mitosis |
Production and maintenance of multicellularity, asexual reproduction, and replacement of old or damaged tissues |
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The Cell Cycle Stepss |
Interphase ( G1 - growth and production of new organelles S- DNA Synthesis - Each chromosome produces an exact cop[y-- sister chromatid centrosomes are also replicated [PLANT CELLS DO NOT HAVE CENTROSOMES] G2- Growth) Cell Division- Mitosis Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase Cell Division- Cytokinesis |
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Prophase |
Mitotic spindle begins to form, nuclear envelope breaks down replicated chromosomes condense and become visible under the microscope |
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Metaphase |
Spindle apparatus is completely formed. Replicated chromosomes line up at the midpoint of the spindle Microtubules (kinetochores) attach to the centromeres of the replicated chromosomes |
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Anaphase |
Centromeres of the replicated chromosomes begin to separate, Chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles |
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Telophase |
In plant cells, a cell plate forms. in animal cells, a clevage furrow forms Both of these structures induce cytokinesis nuclear envelope begins to form around each group of chromosomes chromosomes arrive at poles and begin to uncoil |
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cytokinesis |
cytoplasm and organelles are separated into 2 genetically identical daughter cells of approximately the same size |
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Interphase |
G1- Growth S- Synthesis of DNA G2- Growth Cells spend most of their time in interphase (97%) |
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Unicellularity |
An organism which has only one cell. Prokaryotic or Eukaryotic. (Ex. Chlamydomonas) |
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Colonial |
A organism composed of multiple cells, but the cells are all identical and have no specialization (ex. Gonium) |
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multicellularity |
An organism composed of multiple cells which divide labour via specialization. Eg. Anabaena |
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Gelatinous Matrix |
A secretion by organisms with multiple cells, which holds the individual cells together |
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Cytoplasmic Bridge |
How adjacent cells communicate with one another |
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Ploidy |
The number of sets of chromosones. Ex. Diploid, Haploid |
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Diploid |
contains 2 identical sets of chromosones (*homologous). May or may not be replicated |
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Haploid |
contains 1 sets of chromosones . May or may not be replicated |
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Homologous chromosome. |
A chromosome which has an identical pair in shape and size and genes present. NOT REPLICATED. Likely has unique alleles |
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Locus |
The specific location of a gene on a chromosome. Plural = loci |
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Dominant |
the particular representation of a gene which is demonstrated even when in the presence of a recessive gene (homo or heterozygous) Represented by a capital letter |
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Recessive |
A representation of a gene which will be expressed if homozygous recessive but not if heterozygous. Represented by a little letter |
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Genotype |
An ordered list of the alleles a chromosome carries that are of interest AAGg |
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End Result of Meiosis 1 and Meiosis 2 |
Meiosis 1- Halves the number of chromosomes (Decreases the ploidy from diploid to haploid) Meiosis 2- Separates the sister chromatids and leaves single chromatids in each of 4 unique daughter cells |
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Prophase 1 |
Diploid cell contains 2n chromosomes. Chromosomes condense Nuclear envelope dissintegrates Spindle microtubules begin to form Crossing over may occur |
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Metaphase 1 |
Kinetochores (microtubules) attach to the centrosome of each replicated chromsome Tetrads line up along the midpoint og the cell |
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Anaphase 1 |
Homologous chromosomes separate from one another and are moved to opposite poles |
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Telophase 1 |
Replicated chromosomes arrive at the poles and begin to uncoil. Spindle apparatus dissapears nuclear envelope starts to reform cytokinesis begins At the end, you have 2 unique haploid cells |
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Interkinesis 1 |
Cytokinesis occurs and finishes Cell Grows (G1, G2) NO DNA REPLICATION |
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Prophase 2 |
Replicated chromosomes recondense Nuclear envelope dissintegrates New Spindle forms |
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Metaphase 2 |
Spindle Microtubules attach to the centromeres of replicated chromosome Replicated chromosomes align along the metaphase plane of the daughter cells |
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Anaphase 2 |
Centromeres of each replicated chromsome separate and the single chromosomes are moved to opposite poles by the spindle apparatus |
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Telophase 2 |
Single chromosomes arrive at poles and start to uncoil. Spindle apparatus dissapears, nuclear envelope reforms nucleolus beomes visible cytokinesis begins RESULTS IN 4 GENETICALLY UNIQUE HAPLOID DAUGHTER CELLS |
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Plant Meiosis (Lillium Anthers) |
Meiosis occurs in the sporocytes (diploid cells within reproductive organs (sporangia) within the stamen) in plants. This turns the diploid sporocytes into haploid spores. 1 anther = 4 male sporangia = which contain many many sporocytes which produce 4 haploid spores each via meiosis |
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Chive Preparation (allium tuberosum) |
Choose 1 or 2 buds and place them near the centre. DO NOT USE YELLOW BUDS
Remove the stalk with a razor blade Add Aceto-Orcein Stain Chop plant material with razor Drag plant material across slide Place cover slip LOOK FOR CELLS WITH THICK GLASSY WALLS |
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Alternation of Generations Lifecycle |
Often found in plants Have distinct diploid and haploid stages. Haploid generation produces gametes == called gametophyte Diploid generation produces spores == Sporophyte (where meiosis occurs to produce haploid spores) Most plants are sporophyte dominant |
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Sporophyte |
The diploid generation of a plant. Produces haploid spores via meiosis |
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Gametophyte |
The haploid generation of a plant. Produces haploid gametes |
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Rhizome |
A horizontal underground stem which bears roots |
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Sorus (pl. sori) |
brown spots which grow on the bottom of fern leAves. Made of a cluster or reproductive sporangia. Inside sporangia, diploid sporocytes undergo meiosis to produces haploid spores. |
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Alternation of generations (Fern Specific Stages) |
DIPLOID GENERATION 1. Diploid zygote formed from union f 2 haploid gametes 2. zygote grows on top of haploid gametophyte into a young sporophyte, which grows into a fern 3. Fern grows sporangia in sori underneath leaves 4. cells in sporangia undergo meiosis and produce spores. HAPLOID GENERATION 1. haploid spores are released from diploid sporangium 2. spores germinate and develop into a young gametophyte which grows rhizoids 3. gametophyte is fully developed. (also called PROTHALLUS) 4. gametophyte producesreproductive organs, antheridium, (Develops into sperm), and archaegonium (develops into egg) 5. sperm fertilizes egg and develops into a diploid gamete |
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sorus prep |
Scrape several sporangia into a drop of glycerine on a slide |
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Label sporangium, sporangial stalk, spores |
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Chiasma |
The crossing over point between 2 homologous chromosomes. |
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Mouse Life cycle -- diploid dominant, but alternation |
DIPLOID 1. DIploid zygote forms from the union of egg and sperm 2. zygote undergoes mitosis to grow into an embryo, then a juvenile, then an adult 3. adult mice produce egg or sperm in ovary or testis. HAPLOID 1. haploid egg and sperm are released and joined together as a diploid zygote |
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Gregor Mendel |
Austrian monk. 1866 he published papre about mendellian genetics. 2 laws |
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Mendel's 1st Law |
The alleles of one gene segregate from one another during the formation of gametes PRINCIPLE OF SEGREGATION |
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Mendel's 2nd law |
Alleles of different genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT |
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gene` |
factor of inheritance for a particular gene or characteristic |
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alleles |
the particular variant of the gene (ex. BROWN eyes, B) |
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heterozygous |
Has a copy of both alleles of a gene AaHh |
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homozygous |
same allele of gene. AA aa |
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phenotype |
physical appearance of an organism stated in words |
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frequency |
proportion of one thing happening. \ total to 1 separated by a comma 0.75 brown, 0.25 blue |
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ratio |
proportion of one thing to another with the lowest set to 1 separated by a colon 1 purple: 5 turquoise |
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punnet square |
a diagram used to simulate the combination of male and female gametes to form 2x diploid gametes |
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monohybrid cross |
a cross between two parents to create an F1 generation, where the two parents differ with respect to one phenotypic aspect ex. flower colour PPx pp F1= 1 Pp F2 = 1PP:2Pp: 1PP |
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Dihybrid Cross |
a cross between two organisms which differ in 2 phenotypic aspects. ex. tall, blue x short, yellow TTBBx ttbb F1= 1 TtBb F2= 9 PB, 3 Pb, 3pB, 1pb |
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Test Cross |
To determine if a plant is heterozygous or homozygous, cross it with a homozygous recessive plant. Pl pl pl Ppll ppll It can also be used to determine gene linkage. If no linkage, then ratio of gametes will be 1:1:1:1 if linkage, then 1:1 |
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Recombinant gametes |
Some gametes are parental -- If P1 = AABB and P2= aabb, then AB and ab are parental gametes However, in the F1 there will be some combination of recombinant gametes formed by crossing over. In this example, they would be Ab and aB. You can determine map units from recombinant frequencyq |
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Sex CHromosomes / Sex Linked |
Related to the X or Y chromosomes |
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Autosomal |
Related to any chromosome but x or 4 |
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karyotype |
The number and appearance of all the chromosomes of a particular organism. Different for different organisms |
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Turner Syndrome |
Karyotype shows 1 X chromosome- No 2X no Y Always female Phenotypic abnormalities- Shrot and webbed neck low ears and hairline short swollen hands and feet no periods, breasts, or children |
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Trisomy 21/ Down Syndrome |
Karyotype shows 3 copies of chromosome 21. Phenotypic abnormalities Physical growth delay distinct facial features mild to moderate intellectual disability |
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Kleinefelter's Syndrome |
Karyotype shows XXY for sex chromosomes Only Men Prevents normal testicular development, delay or incomplete puberty gynecomastia ;ess hair infertile learning disorders delayed speach and language ability |
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dominant phenotypes |
Not always the most common. widow;'s peak unattached earlobes freckles left thumb on top of interlaced fingers cannot hyperextend thumb bent little finger\ right hand visible arm cross PTC Taster |
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carriers |
females who are heterozygous for a sex linked trait |
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Pedigree Charts |
Because forced human breeding is not ok, we study historical examples of a trait in a family. ex. haemophilia in royal family. written like a family tree. square = male, circle, = female, coloured in = affected, partially coloured in = carrier |
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dermatoglyphics |
the study of the patterns and number of fingerprints 3 main patterns- arch, loop, whorl TRC = total ridge count |
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percentage recombination |
total number of recombinants / *100 total number of offspring = % recombination or # of map units apart. therefore, high number means further apart if over 50 map units, genes are not linked |
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Biotechnology |
The use of organisms or their components to make or modify products useful to humans "Modern Biotechnology" = involves DNA |
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DNA |
large, negatively charged, double stranded molecule composed of a series of nucleotides. nucleotides have 3 parts - nitrogenous base (ATCG) -sugar (deoxyribose) - phosphate group (negatively charged) the 2 strands are joined together by covalent phosphodiester bonds H bonds form between complementary nitrogenous bases |
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Biological Samples |
Must contain nucleated cells -body fluids, hair with follicle, skin, organ, bones Process: 1. DNA extraction from sample. 2. PCR 3. Restriction fragment analysis |
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DNA extraction |
use isotonic sports drink and swish around. put in test tube add cell lysis solution (detergent) mix gently add ethanol on top and allow dna to ppt into et hanol |
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Polymerase CHain Reaction (PCR) |
Requires 4 ingredients- -DNA extract, -4 types of deoxyribonucelic triphosphates (dNTPs) (dATP, dCTP, dGTP, dTTP) -Primers -DNA Polymerase Combined and placed in a thermal cycler. 1. DNA Denaturation (95deg) Separates the 2 strands 2. Anneal Primers (55deg) cool so primers can bind 3. Extend Primers/DNA synthesis (78 deg) EACH CYCLE DOUBLES THE AMOUNT OF DNA |
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Restriction fragment analysis |
an ndirect comparison between nucleotide sequences. Cuts at instance of certain fragment (ex. CGGT) and different people's DNA will be different lengths between the instances of this code. Multiple sequences add accuracy
1. Restriction digest of PCR cuts DNA into specific fragments 2. Gel electrophoresis separates fragments according to size via an electrified gel and dyed Gel's Ladder contains fragments of known size for distance reference |
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Applications of biotechnology |
forensics, paternity testing, genetic testing, cloning |
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recombinant DNA |
used to create GMOs/ transgenic organisms . DNA is cut by restriction fragment, then new DNA is ligated in, and then all bound together by polymerase |