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152 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Four categories of cells |
1. Muscle 2. Nerve 3. Epithelial 4. Connective |
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Functional units |
--Subunits of an organ |
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Three types of muscles cells |
1. Skeletal --Help limbs and skin move 2. Cardiac --Movement of heart 3. Smooth --Dilation of blood vessels |
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Internal mileu |
--Interstitial fluid --Also refers to the main component of the the extra-cellular fluid --The fluid that surrounds the tissues and organs |
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Walter Cannon on homeostasis (3 features) |
(1) Homestatsis doesn't occur by chance (its a coordinated system) (2) The regulatory system that maintains homeostasis consists of cooperating mechanisms that act simultaneously or successively (3) Resisting change (negative feedback) |
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Three parts of negative feedback |
1. Sensor 2. Integrating center (decides what to do with the change) 3. Effector (releases hormones etc. to fix) |
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What does your body do to thermoregulate when you are cold and need to raise body temperature? |
--Constriction of blood vessels (why your face goes white) --Decreased sweating --Increased shivering |
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Two things that dictate direction of rxn for a reversible one? |
1. Principle of chemical equilibrium 2. Law of mass action NOT AN ENZYME |
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Things that dictate how fast a reaction will go |
1. Concentration of reactants 2. Temp 3. Enzymes/activation barrier |
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Enzyme regulation (1) allosteric modulation |
Can be an activator or inhibitor --Non-covalently binds to regulatory site (not covalent bond like with covalent modification) |
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Enzyme regulation (2) covalent modification |
--Enzymes catalyze a bond between chemical group and enzyme molecule --Changes the active site |
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Total body water |
2/3 ECF --ECF made up of mostly Interstitial fluid but also plasma 1/3 intracellular water |
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Main things ATP is used in |
1. Movement 2. Membrane transport 3. Molecular synthesis |
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Two ways to produce ATP |
1. Substrate-level phosphorylation --Don't need O2 2. Oxidative phosphorylation --Depends on O2 for the oxidative reactions in the mitochondrial environments |
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Four steps in glucose oxidation |
1. Glycolysis 2. Linking step 3. Krebs cycle 4. Oxidative phosphorylation |
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Glycolysis |
--1 glucose --> 2 pyruvates --10 step process, 10 enzymes involved --Produces 2 NADH + 2H that are used in oxidative phosphorylation |
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Linking step |
--2 pyruvate --> 2 acetyl- coA --Pyruvate enters mitocondria --Produces 2 NADH + 2H that are used in oxidative phosphorylation |
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Krebs Cycle |
--8 enzyme process --Uses 1 acetyl coA to make 3NADH + 3H and 1 FADH which will go to oxidative phosphorylation |
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Oxidative Phosphorylation |
NADH and FADH donate their electrons to acceptors in ETC and become oxidized |
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How to make ATP in absence of oxygen? (aka no oxidative phosphorylation) |
--Use the glycolysis step only --Produce 2NADH and 2ATP --NADH oxidized to NAD+ which makes lactate |
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Uncoupling |
--When H+ go from intermembrane to inner membrane space to produce heat but no ATP |
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Two types of membrane transports |
1. Passive 2. Active |
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Two types of Passive |
1. Carrier mediated --Through transmembrane protein channel --No ATP 2. Simple diffusion --From high to low concentration --Only at short distances |
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Two types of active |
1. Primary Active Transport 2. Secondary Active Transport |
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Chemical driving force is caused by |
Concentration gradient (moves from high to low until uniformly distributed) |
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Diffusion time is proportional to |
Distance^2 |
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What are the two things that the net diffusion flux rate are proportional to? |
1. Concentration differences between two locations 2. Proportional to the membrane permeability |
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What is used to calculate net flux rate? |
--Fick's law |
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Fick's law equation |
F = K (permability) x A (surface area) x X (concentration outside) - X (concentration inside) |
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Is a smaller membrane (more thin) more permeable or not? |
Yes, more permeable |
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What things does the permability constant affected by? |
1. Temp (increased temp, increased diffusion) 2. Solubility (more soluble in lipid bilayers when non-polar than polar/charged) 3. Size and shape of molecule (when small, the molecule is able to diffuse more rapidly) |
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What dictates the electrical driving force? |
--The membrane potential of the cell and the charge of the ion ----Opposites attract |
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Another named for carrier mediated diffusion? |
Facilitated diffusion |
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What is facilitated diffusion? |
--No ATP --Used to bring ions and such through the membrane when low permability --Open and close --Are effected by same factors as diffusion except this also has a saturable rate because it can be full |
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Primary Active Transport |
--Hydrolyze ATP to move things against their electrochemical gradient --Move Na out of the cell even though there isn't alot in the cell to begin with --Used to counteract the leaks |
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Secondary Active Transport |
--Don't directly hydrolyze ATP but use the gradients that are formed by other ATPases which facilitates movement |
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What are transporters used in? What are the different types? |
1. Cotransporters -- unidirection 2. Countertransporters -- bidirectional |
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What is calculated with the Nerst equation? |
--The equlibrium potential - |
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Osmolarity |
--Total SOLUTE particle concentration --An increase in osmolarity is a decrease in water concentration --Osmosis moves in direction of higher osmolarity |
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Tonicity |
--The function of the concentration of non-permeating solutes (basically the stuff that is unable to cross the membrane) |
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Urea |
--Permeating solute, something that can move into the cell and create an osmotic driving force for the diffusion of water |
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Epithelial Transport |
--Transport across entire cell layers |
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Apical vs. Basal epithalial |
Apical --Faces the lumen --Uses cotransporter (secondary transport) Basal --Faces the intersitial fluid --Uses primary transport (Na2+/K+ pumps etc.) |
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How is water transported across epithelials? |
--Not by water pumps (only solute pumps exist) --Need to have a osmotic gradient (Active transport of solutes) and then the water will flow due to osmosis |
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Explain how cells would secrete fluids: |
1. Solute transported against concentration gradient (from low--> high) to create an osmotic gradient so increase the concentration of non-permeating solutes outside in the interstital fluid 2. The water will flow from cell to interstital fluid on the basolateral side (down its concentration gradient) |
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How would taking in fluids differ? |
--It would be the opposite |
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How do cells communicate with one another? |
Intercellular chemical messengers |
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What are the three types of intercellular chemical messengers? |
1. Hormones --Secreted by endocrine cells to target cell --Target cells must have a receptor --Slow acting 2. Neurotransmitters --Secreted by nerve/pre-synaptic cells --Fast-acting 3. Autocrine agents --Used for local homeostatic response --Short distances --Reach target cells using diffusion |
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Four features of a signal transduction pathway |
1. Able to amplify 2. Receptor specific 3. Desensitization/adaption --Can pull receptors away, stop responding 4. Integration --Doesn't have to be one input, can be many inputs |
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What increases cell strength? (essientially, what increases the number of receptors that are bound) |
1. Presence of messenger 2. Number of receptors on the membrane etc. 3. Affinity between receptor and ligand |
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Two types of receptors that can bind to messengers |
1. Intracellular receptors 2. Membrane-bound receptors |
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Characteristics of intracellular receptors |
--Act as transcription factors --Can be either located in the nucleus or in the cytosol --If they are in the cytosol then they will bring the ligand with them and act as a transcription factor |
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Three types of membrane-bound receptors |
--All respond to lipophobic messengers 1. Channel-linked receptor 2. Enzyme-linked receptor 3. G-protein linked receptor |
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Exocrine vs. endocrine glads |
--Exocrine: secrete to products outside like ducts etc. --Endocrine: which secrete products directly into the blood stream |
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Four things that show that the endocrine and nervous system interact |
1. Endocrine glands are under nervous control 2. Some HORMONES are released from NEURONS rather than from endocrine glands 3. Depending on where they are in the body some substances may act as a hormone (when in circulation) or as a neurotransmitter in the brain 4. Hypothalamus-Pituitairy COmplex --Neuro-endocrine interface itself |
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Substance that acts as a neurotransmitter and a hormone depending on where it is in the body |
Epinephrine/adrenaline |
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Examples of secondary endocrine organs |
--The heart, liver, stomach, skin, intestine |
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Three classes of hormones |
1. Amines 2. Protein + polypeptide hormones 3. Steroid hormones |
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Precursor of catecholamines |
Tyrosine --Depending on available enzymes, they will make certain catecholamines |
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T3 + T4 |
--Regulate metabolic rate and growth --Derived from tyrosine --Secreted from thyroid --Are amines |
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Proteins/polypeptides that act as hormones |
--GH (Released by anterior pituitary) --Atrial naturetic peptide (released by heart to regulate sodium reabsorption by the kidneys |
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Preprohormone vs. Prohormone |
Prohormone: as it leaves the golgi --Gets cleaved to become hormone Preprohormone: after gene transcription --Gets cleaved to become prohormone |
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Steroid hormones |
--Are hydrophobic/lipophilic --Can diffuse membranes to reach the intracellular receptors --Produced by gonads (sex stereoids), placenta and adrenal cortex |
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What needs a carrier in blood stream? |
--Lipophilic/hydrophobic |
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How do hormones effect their target cells? |
1. Directly (activating or inhibiting cells) 2. Indirectly (having permissive effects which are like altering the sensitivity (up/down regulating their receptors) |
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Octapeptides |
--Oxytocin and vasopressin --Released from vesicles in the posterior pituitary --8 AA |
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Adenohypophysis Neurohypophysis |
--Anterior pituitary --Posterior pituitary |
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Hypothalamus -- pituitary portal system |
--Neurosecretory cells in hypothalamus release TROPIC hormones into this area and stimulate the release of different hormones from the anterior pituitary |
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Dopamine |
--Suppresses prolactin |
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Prolactin |
--Not a tropic hormone --Used in reproductive functions, promotes breast development, milk production, suppresses ovulation |
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ACTH |
--promotes glucocorticoid release from adrenal cortex in response to stress |
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GH |
--promotes IGF-1 release to promote growth (insulin-like growth factor 1) --Alters protein synthesis and carbohydrate + lipid metabolism |
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LH + FSH |
--Stimulates sex hormone production and promotes ovulation |
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Short loop vs long loop negative feedback |
Short loop: from anterior -- hypothalamus Long loop: from adrenals etc to anterior or hypo |
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Adrenal cortex secretes |
(1) Mineralcorticoids (2) Glucococorticoids |
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Chromaffin cells are located in and secrete |
--Adrenal medulla, secrete mostly epinephrine and
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Beta blockers |
--Are epinephrine receptor antagonists (decrease) so that when epinephrine is secreted is cannot bind to the heart (decreases heart rate, blood pressure etc.) |
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Pancreas alpha cells |
--Stimulates glucose release into the blood in response to a fall in glucose --Glucagon |
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Pancreas beta cells |
--Stimulates glucose re-uptake using insulin |
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Diabetes Type 1 |
--Destruction of beta cells --Auto-immune |
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Diabetes Type 2 |
--Resistant to insulin because there is so much glucose in the fluid --Change diet etc. |
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Thyroglobulin |
--Precursor to t3 and t4 --released from follicles in the thyroid |
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Thyroid organ |
1. Secretes T3 + T4 2. Secretes calcitonin |
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Parathyroid gland |
1. Secretes calcitonin --Used in metabolic rate |
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How does the heart act as a secondary endocrine organ? |
--Secrete ANP --Responds to heart stretch, regulates Na2+ reabsorption by the kidney |
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How does the liver act as a secondary endocrine organ? |
--Insulin growth factors are released in response to GH which is used to stimulate growth |
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How does the kidney act as a secondary endocrine organ? |
--In response to change in O2, causes erthopoietin which causes blood cell proliferation |
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Additive Syneristic |
-- = sum of the multiple effects -- the sum is greater than the effects |
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Glial cells (90% of cells in NS) have functions |
1. Structural integrity of NS 2. Homeostatic regulation 3. Acts as myelin to insulate 4. Used in local intercellular |
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Bipolar neurons |
--Typically sensory neurons --Cell body between neurons and dendrites |
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Pseudo unipolar |
--Cell body off to the side --Axon and dendrites appear as a single process that extends in two directions but the dendrites actually functions as an axon --Peripheral axon --Central axon |
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Peripheral axon |
--Modified dendritic process --Originates in periphery but actually transmits APs |
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Central axon |
--Extends in CNS, forms synapses w/ other neurons |
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Multipolar |
--One axon, many dendrites --Cell body at top and many projections |
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What is an efferent response of a somatic response? |
Skeletal |
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What is an autonomic response from the efferent division? |
--Sympathetic --Parasympathetic |
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Afferent neuron, terminate as CNS |
Pseudo-unipolar, afferent |
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Receptors in periphery (2) |
1. Sensory receptors 2. Visceral receptors |
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Example of visceral receptor |
Baroreceptor |
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Efferent neuron |
--Multiple polar neuron that enters PNSq |
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Glial cells in PNS |
--Schwann --Satellite |
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Glial Cells in CNS |
--Oligodendocytes (same as Schwann in PNS) --Astrocytes --Microglia --Ependymal |
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Why does myelinated make them faster? |
--Reducing ion leak |
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Two things that determine Vm |
1. Concentration gradients --concentrations of ions like K+ and Na+ 2. Permeability of ions --Moving across |
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Two types of electrical signals |
1. Graded Potentials 2. Action potentials |
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What is summation and what type of potential does it occur in? |
--Spatial -- Multiple interactions --Temporal -- One interaction HAPPENS IN GRADED POTENTIAL |
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Do graded potentials have refractory periods? Why does this make sense? |
--No, makes sense because spatial action potentials occur
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Absolute refractory period |
--Corresponds to depolarization and repolarization |
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Relative refractory period |
--Corresponds to hyperpolarization |
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What are GPs |
--When dendrites open their dendrites --Let ions flow in --Signals then propagate |
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What can't an action potential occur in the absolute or refractory period? |
Sodium channels still inactivated |
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Trigger zone |
--Axon hillock |
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Explain the conduction and axon diameter relationship |
--Increased conduction with increased diameter --Resistance to action potential is inversely related to axon timer |
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Three benefits of myelination |
1. Saves surface area 2. Metabolically cheaper 3. Higher conductance |
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Axosomatic synapse Axoaxonic synapse |
--Synapse between cell body of post-synaptic neuron and pre-synaptic dendrites --Synapse between axon of post-synaptic nueron with terminal arms of pre-synnaptic neurons |
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Where do electrical synapses occur? |
--Neuron to neuron, neuron to glial |
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Where do chemical synapses occur? |
--Can be neuron-neuron or neuron to effector |
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Two types of receptors a neurotransmitter may bind to |
1. Channel-linked receptor (ionotropic) receptor -----FAST ACTING 2. G-protein coupled (metabotropic) receptor -----SLOW ACTING |
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Two types of metabotropic receptors |
1. Direct coupling --Indirectly activates an ion channel 2. Second messengers --Indirectly activates by binding to enzyme --Second messenger might phosphorylate etc. |
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GABAa receptor is a ____ receptor, what does it let in and what happens when it does |
--Ionotropic --Let Cl into --GABA released at inhibitory synpases --When bound to GABA then hyperpolarizing happens |
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Three things that affect neurotransmitter release |
1. AP frequency --stronger stimulus, might activate more frequency, more calcium in neuron when AP freq release 2. Autoreceptors --on pre-synaptic neuron, may inhibit/ promote 3. Presynaptic facilitation/inhibition (modulatory synapses) |
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Parts of forebrain |
Cerebrum, diancephalon |
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Parts of diancephalon |
thalamus, hypothalamus, pituituary gland |
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Part of brainstem |
pons, medulla, midbrain |
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Glossopharyngeal |
--CN 9 --Motor control of swallowing and salivary glands |
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Vagus nerve |
--CN10 --Afferent of thoracic + abdominal --Motor control of larynx + pharynx |
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Partellar Tendon Stretch |
--Only monosynaptic stretch --Muscle spindle senses the stimulus and synapses with afferent neurons which will relay info to CNS and efferent neurons --Excitatory connect to contract quad, inhibitory to relax hamstring |
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Withdrawal |
--Stepping on something makes hamstring contract and quad relaxed --Nocireceptors transmit info to spinal cord where they can have excitatory synapses and transmit to other side for efferent neurons on the other leg --in order to stabilize leg then you have the quad excited and the hamstring inhited |
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Pacininan corpuscle |
Type of mechanoreceptor that responds to vibration |
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Baroreceptors |
--Detect BP, regulate heart |
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Chemoreceptors |
--Detect O2, CO2, pH |
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Sensory unit |
--A single afferent with all it's receptors |
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Receptor potential |
--GP induced by a stimulus in a sensory receptor |
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Second-order neuron Third-order neuron |
--Spinal cord to thalamus --From thalamus to cortex |
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TRP |
--Temperature sensitive ion channels that underlie temperature sensation |
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Capsaicin |
--Binds to temp receptor --Eliciting a hot response |
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Rhodopsin |
--Protein that detects light --Influences g-protein that regulates the opening of ion channels |
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Presence of light |
--Reduction of AP, activate G-protein, close Na, hyperpolarize, reduce stimulation of bipolar cells |
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Anatomy of SNS Pre-ganglionic fibres |
--Cell bodies are in the brain stem or the spinal cord --Thinly myelinated and go towards the autonomic ganglion |
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Anatomy of SNS Post-ganglionic fibres |
--Cell bodies in the autonomic ganglion --Unmyelinated and projects to visceral effector organs |
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Anatomy of PSNS Pre-ganglionic fibres |
--Cell bodies in the brain stem or sacral SC --Ususally travel through CN |
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Anatomy of PSNS Post-ganglionic fibres |
--Shorter --Cell body in autonomic ganlion |
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NT in pre and post synaptic synapses in PSNS |
Ach |
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NT in pre in PSNS |
Ach |
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What breaks down Ach |
Acetylcholinesterase |
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Two types of Ach receptors |
1. Ionotropic/ Nicotonin --Nicotonic receptor --On all post-ganglionic neurons (activation of PSNS) 2. Metabotropic/ Muscarinic --Expressed at effector organ |
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Three places where SNS may intervate pre and post |
1. Sympathetic chain --Travel through spinal cord to synapse in symapthetic chain 2. Collateral ganglion --another place where they might synapse in SNS when post-ganglionic is short 3. Chromaffin cell |
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Final transmitter of SNS (usually) |
Norepinephrine |
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Adrengenic receptors |
--Binds NE and E --Metatrophic --Effector organs of SNS |
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Two classes of adrengenic receptors |
A class B class |
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A1 pathway |
--NE/E bind to metatrophic receptor, activate g-protein, bind to enzyme that use PIP to result in phosphorylation |
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A2 + B pathway |
--NE/E bind to metatropic receptor, activate/inhibit G protein, ATP used to make cAMP, cAMP elicit a response |