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118 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
the scientific method steps
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1. start with a question
2. come up with a working hypothesis 3. use hypothesis to come up with testable prediction 4. collect data about the prediction 5. if results don't math, reject the hypothesis. otherwise, tentatively accept hypothesis and continue testing |
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mechanisms
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immediate triggers of behavior
internal or external |
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ontogeny
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development
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selective advantage
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function
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phylogeny
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evolutionary history
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proximate levels of analysis
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mechanisms and ontogeny
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ultimate levels of analysis
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selective advantage and phylogeny
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biological evolution
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change in gene frequencies (allele) over time
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natural selection and it's 3 key components
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the process whereby some organisms in a species have certain inherited variations that give them an advantage over others
1. variation 2. heritability 3. differential survival and reproduction |
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heritability
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offspring on average resemble their parents more than other individuals
ranges from 0 to 1.0 |
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differential success
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some individuals leave more offspring to the next generation than others do, due to competition for resources, shelter, mates, and avoiding predators
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fitness
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# of offspring surviving an individual has which survive to reproductive maturity during its lifetime
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mechanisms of evolution
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1. natural selection
2. genetic drift 3. founder effect 4. migration |
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disruptive selection
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selection favors small and large individuals
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stabilizing selection
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selection for midsized individuals
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directional selection
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selection for larger individuals
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sources of variation
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1. mutation is original source
2. recombination makes new variation 3. immigration |
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frequency dependent selection
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fitness of a given genotype depends on its frequency in a population
allele (and its phenotype) have selective advantage when they are rare. as their frequency increases the advantage decreases. then alternative allele becomes "rare" |
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frequency dependent predation
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selection of overabundant prey type
"search image" |
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frequency dependent reproduction
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"rare male advantage"
two spot lady bugs |
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negative assortment mating
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opposites attract
MHC and mice MHC (HLA) and humans different immune systems |
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environmental variation
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funnel spiders
spiders with more predators stay in their tunnels more |
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convergent evolution
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distantly related animals evolve to become similar to each othera
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adaptation
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a characteristic that confers higher fitness to individuals than do the alternatives
a trait that is spreading, has spread, or is being maintained by natural selection |
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adaptive value
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the contribution that a trait makes to fitness (higher reproductive success)
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adaptationist
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one who tests adaptive hypotheses about traits. does the trait increase fitness?
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black-headed gull mobbing behavior hypothesis
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mobbing is adaptive because it increases chance of egg survival
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ground to cliff nesting is an example of what...
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divergent evolution due to a change in predation pressure
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convergent evolution
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distinct ancestry sharing same behavior
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comparative method
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use evolutionary transitions
relate behavior of interest to other transitions identify selective pressures that favored that trait |
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altruism
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when one individual (donor) loses fitness as the result of helping another individual (recipient) gain fitness
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the explanations for altruism
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1. group selection
2. reciprocal altruism 3. kin selection |
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group selection
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natural selection which has the group as the unit of the selection, so if a trait in an individual benefits the group- it will be favored
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levels of selection in order
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genes--individual--group--species
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problems with group selection and altruism
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altruism for group benefit is not stable--cheaters will usually do better
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game theory
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model interactions in which the benefits of different behaviors depend on the actions of others
look for evolutionary stable strategies prisoner's dilemma |
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evolutionary stable strategy
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a strategy which, if adopted by all members of a population, cannot be invaded by an alternative
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prisoner's dilemma
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cooperation is at the price of the individual
group selection- both stay quiet is best for group individual- defecting argues against group selection as a form of altruism |
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reciprocal altruism
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helping another in expectation that the favor will be repaid
cheating is possible but anticipate punishment if benefit to the recipient>cost to the donor, both will gain if the help is reciprocated at a later date HAS TO BE COST TO THE DONOR |
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example of reciprocal altruism
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vampire bats regurgitate blood
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reciprocity
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there is a delay between recipients benefit and actors benefit
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mutualism
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actor and recipient benefit immediately
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satellite strategy in crickets
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males without sound (flat-winged) use other males for reproductive success by taking advantage of other males' calls, who then get eaten by parasites
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kin selection
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altruism towards relatives
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inclusive fitness
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net offspring production plus sum of all relatives offspring corrected for r (coefficient of relatedness: probability that 2 individuals will share copies of a particular allele that is identical through direct descent)
fitness achieved by helping kin survive |
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hamilton's rule:
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be altruistic if r*B>C
B is the benefit to the recipient, range from 0 (no benefit) to 1 (life saving benefit) C is cost to the actor from 0 to 1 |
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problems with measuring inclusive fitness
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although coefficient of relatedness is easy to determine, B and C are difficult to measure
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kin recognition
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environmental and social factors determine the timing, form, and limits of kin recognition
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learned mechanisms of kin recognition
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location (nest, territory)
olfactory, auditory, visual cues prolonged social contact |
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genetic mechanism of kin recognition
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phenotypic matching
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example of olfactory kin recognition
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paper wasps learn nest odor
belding's ground squirrels learn to recognize their own odor |
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imprinting
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a strong association learned during a specific developmental period ("critical period")
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learning
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a permanent change or modification of behavior as a result of experience
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habituation
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decline in response to a harmless repeated stimulus. not due to fatigue or sensory adaptation. it acts as a filter so animal doesn't waste energy on irrelevant stimulus. it is adaptive
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classical conditioning
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unconditioned stimulus elicits unconditioned response
unconditioned stimulus is paired with a conditioned stimulus, and after repeated pairings, the conditioned stimulus starts to elicit a response, the conditioned response |
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operant conditioning
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behavior first, then stimulus (reward, punishment)
trial and error performance improves |
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behavioral development in bees
(example of gene-environment interaction) |
genes- influence activity (high, moderate low)
genes are turned on by queen's mandibular hormone, pheremones produced by workers, and juvenile hormones high-->foragers low-->nursers |
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instinct
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far to the genetic end of spectrum
appears in its entirety the first time its displayed--no prior experience |
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instinct example: fixed action patterns
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stereotyped and often complex series of movements, responses to specific stimuli. programmed response to a stimulus
chicks know they have to peck at mom's beaks |
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how to determine if behavioral differences are shaped by genetic differences?
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1. study wild populations under the same environment (lab)--snakes and banana slugs
2. artificial selection- mice gathering cotton, dogs and response to human cues 3. create hybrids- intermediate genotype 4. knock-ins- insert genes 5. knock-outs- eliminate a gene 6. twin studies- reared together and apart 7. assay genetic activity |
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vassopressin receptor
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increases bonding
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fosB
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pup gathering
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oxytocin
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no longer recognize females they've already mated with. will mate with anyone
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polyphenisms
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food-induced
socially induced predator induced cannibalistic tadpoles based on number of other tadpoles in tank |
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the most proximate cause of behavior
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neural control
-perception -info processing -motor |
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deception
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because many animals rely on simple stimuli, they can be fooled
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why regulate behavior?
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behaviors are more beneficial at certain times
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prioritization in action
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crickets and predators. respond to predators by not moving their wings. have predators during the day
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circadian rhythms maintained by
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internal and external cues
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internal clock (circadian)
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SCN in hypothalamus- pacemaker
per gene encodes for PER protein tau encodes for CKle protein, which breaks down PER TIM binds to PER protein and makes it less susceptible to getting broken down by TAU |
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adaptive value of the 2-tier organizational system of circadian rhythm
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internal clock allows individuals to alter behavior without having to constantly monitor to environment
external clock allows individuals to adjust to local variation |
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external influences on cycles
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ecological variables (sun, food, rain, temperature, day length,)
social variables combinations |
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regulation of behavior (cycles)
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1. prioritization of behavior- immediate vs distant benefit
2. circadian rhythm 3. circannual rhythm |
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hormones produced by...
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endocrine glands-
pituitary gonadal adrenal |
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neural vs hormonal communication
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neural- fast, train-like
hormonal- longer-term, car-like, has to break down in blood system |
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hormones mediate...
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longer-term processes
reproduction, growth, development, respond to ecological and social stimulu |
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activational effect
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exposure---then effect, shorter
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regulation of behavior (cycles)
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1. prioritization of behavior- immediate vs distant benefit
2. circadian rhythm 3. circannual rhythm |
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organizational effect
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exposure, then a critical period, and then the effect, which is longer
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hormones produced by...
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endocrine glands-
pituitary gonadal adrenal |
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neural vs hormonal communication
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neural- fast, train-like
hormonal- longer-term, car-like, has to break down in blood system |
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testosterone
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male secondary sexual characteristics
sperm production aggression/competition mating fluctuates seasonally breeding species |
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costs of testosterone
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-energetic costs: muscle tissue, maintaining behaviors, metabolic costs of male ornaments
-risks of injury -immune system: disease, parasite load -decreased parental investment |
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hormones mediate...
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longer-term processes
reproduction, growth, development, respond to ecological and social stimulu |
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activational effect
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exposure---then effect, shorter
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prolactin
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secreted by pituitary
general functions: females- lactation, males-paternal care |
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organizational effect
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exposure, then a critical period, and then the effect, which is longer
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glucocorticoids
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corisol- stress, ulcers, reduced immunity, weigh loss
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testosterone
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male secondary sexual characteristics
sperm production aggression/competition mating fluctuates seasonally breeding species |
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costs of testosterone
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-energetic costs: muscle tissue, maintaining behaviors, metabolic costs of male ornaments
-risks of injury -immune system: disease, parasite load -decreased parental investment |
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prolactin
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secreted by pituitary
general functions: females- lactation, males-paternal care |
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glucocorticoids
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corisol- stress, ulcers, reduced immunity, weigh loss
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coevolution
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when animals are locked in life or death struggles, they are both exerting strong selection pressure on each other
impala evolves to be faster, cheetah will evolve too to keep up |
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toxins and noxious agents
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make yourself taste bad to deter predators
aposomatic coloration- warning colors |
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mullerian mimicry
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poisonous animals resemble each other, benefit from shared warning
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batesian mimicry
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deception- nonpoisonous animal resembles a poisonous unpalatable animal
batesian mimcs must be rarer than the poisonous animal |
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attack deterrent
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honest signals of strength (unprofitability)
"don't bother" stotting gazelles push-up lizards |
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crypsis
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avoiding detection
-being nocturnal -sitting still -habitat selection -transparency -camouflage -changing color -used by predators and prey |
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group living benefits
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-predator detection
-dilution effect -confusion effect -mobbing |
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dilution effect-
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predators usually feed at limited rates
by coming together in large groups, can saturate predators and many prey survive benefit has to outweigh the cost of easier detection |
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confusion effect
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predator has difficulty tracking a single prey among the chaos--stimulus interference
predator success rate lower |
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odd prey effect
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unusual looking prey in a group more likely to be captured
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mobbing
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group attack on predators
effective deterrent can be costly |
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optimality theory
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often applied to foraging
cost and benefit are measured (in terms of calories gained and expended) |
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game theory- social living
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solitary-solitary: P=fitness as solitary individual
solitary-social: P-B(benefit gained by being social) (someone else uses you to hide- their gain is your loss) social-solitary= P+B (you gain by hiding behind them) C=cost of finding individual to hide behind, cost of general conspicuousness social-social= P+B/2-B/2-C |
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herbivores
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low quality food foraging, easy to obtain
adaptations for processing and digesting low risk, low reward, lots of time spent feeding |
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carnivores
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high quality, difficult to find
adaptations for locating and capturing food high risk, high reward lots of time spent finding food |
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generalist
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can feed on many different food items
not necessarily adapted to eating any specific food |
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specialist
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focus on one or very few food items
good competitor for that food |
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optimal foraging theory
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maximize energy intake per unit time
-prey models -patch models |
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prey models
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consider how an organism should behave when there are different types of prey available
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optimal foraging theory
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seeks to provide mathematical models that describe underlying problems of resource acquisition
organisms must not simply maximize energetic gains (calories) but rather the rate of energy gain per unit time |
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patch models
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consider how an organism should feed when resources are located in discrete clumps
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marginal value theorem
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food intake within a patch decreases over time.
there is a cost of leaving the patch should stay in the patch until rate of intake in that patch equals rate of intake across all patches (accounting for travel time) |
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general constraint of risk
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which strategy should be favored--risk proneness or risk aversion
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producer-scrounger game
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scroungers are usually able to steal food from producers. results in frequency dependent selection
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conditional strategy
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an individual can flexibly adopt different strategies during its lifespan
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group living and finding food: locating food
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groups as info centers (passive communication)
other individuals will follow if another comes back with prey |