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144 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Describe how hormones bring about their effects on their target organs.
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Hormones bind to specific protein receptors on the cell membrane or in the cell. Steroidal hormones can enter the target cell. Nonsteroidal hormones cannot enter but instead bind to the plasma membrane.
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Explain how various endocrine glands are stimulated to release their hormonal products (categories of stimulus)
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Hormonal stimulus is when hormones stimulate the production of glands.
Humoral stimulus is when chemicals in the blood stimulate the production of glands. Neural stimulus is when nerves stimulate the production of glands. |
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Explain how negative feedback mechanisms regulate the blood levels of certain hormones.
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Negative feedback is the chief means for regulating the blood levels of certai hormones. The hormones begin production because of an internal or external stimulus. Then, the increasing hormone level inhibits the production of more hormones.
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Explain the functional relationship between the pituitary gland the hypothalamus.
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The hypothalamus releases hormones that control the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland. The hypothalamus also makes the hormones oxytocin and antidiuretic, which are stored in the posterior pituitary gland.
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Describe the effect of aging on the endocrine glands and give one example of deficiency of the endocrine system in old age.
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Endocrine glands work efficiently until old age, leading to decreased lgand function which can have many different effects depending on the target cells.
Diabetes mellitus is an example of a deficiency of the endocrine system. Muscle atropy could also occur. Menopause occurs in women. |
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List three examples of organs from other body systems that release hormones.
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Small intestine
Heart Placenta |
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Chemical messenger released into the blood by endocrine glands
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hormone
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tissue, cell, or organ affected by a certain hormone
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target organ
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glands with no ducts
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endocrine glands
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glands with ducts
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exocrine glands
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controls growth of long bones and muscles; anterior pituitary
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growth hormone
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stimulates milk production in females after birth; anterior pituitary
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prolactin
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stimulates contractions during labor; posterior pituitary
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oxytocin
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inhibits urine production; posterior pituitary
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antidiuretic hormone
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controls rate of glucose oxidation; thyroid
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thyroid hormone
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decreases blood calcium levels; thyroid
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calcitonin
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increases blood calcium levels; parathyroid
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parathyroid hormone
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controls mineral or salt content of blood; adrenal cortex
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mineralocorticoids
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works as part of the sympathetic nervous system; adrenal medulla
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epinephrine
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decreases blood glucose level by increasing cells' ability to take in glucose; pancreas
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insulin
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stimulates development of female secondary sex characteristics; ovaries
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estrogen
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necessary for continuous sperm production; testes
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testosterone
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relaxes pelvis for easier birth passage
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relaxin
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white of the eye
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sclera
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contains dark pigment which prevents light from scattering in the eye; iris
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choroid
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contains photoreceptors; inner tunic
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retina
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sees gray tones
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rods
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sees colors
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cones
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ability of the eye to focus on close objects
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accommodation
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unequal curvatures in cornea or lens
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astigmatism
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area where optic nerve leaves eyeball
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blind spot
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hardening of lens, clouds vision
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cataract
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eye focuses light correctly
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emmetropia
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disorder caused by blocked drainage of aqueous humor
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glaucoma
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farsightedness
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hyperopia
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nearsightedness
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myopia
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bending of light when it moves through a substance
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refraction
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movement of eyes medially when viewing close objects
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convergence reflex
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constriction of pupil when exposed to bright light
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photopupillary reflex
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pupils constrict when viewing close objects
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accommodation pupillary reflex
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determines up and down; receptors respond to gravity in the vestibule
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static equilibrium
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receptors in semilunar canals responds to angular or rotational movements of the body
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dynamic equilibrium
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smell receptors
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olfactory receptors
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taste receptors
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taste buds
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Describe image formation on the retina
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The image is refracted. (Refraction is the bending of light). The image on the retina is called a real image. it is reversed, inverted, and smaller.
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Trace the pathway of light through the eye to the retina
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1. Cornea
2. Aqueous humor 3. Pupil 4. Aqueous humor 5. Lens 6. Vitreous humor 7. Retina |
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Explain the function of the organ of Corti in hearing
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The organ of Corti is for hearing within the cochlea. Hair cells in the organ of Corti respond to vibrations and send messages to the cochlear nerve.
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Define sensorineural deafness and conduction deafness and give possible causes of each.
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Sensorineual deafness is caused by damage or degeneration to the organ of Corti, the cochlear nerve, or the neurons of the auditory complex. This is caused by excessive listening to loud music, for example.
Conduction deafness is caused by a blockage that stops the vibrations from being transmitted to the fluids of the inner ear. This is caused by something mechanical, such as built up ear wax, ruptured ear drum, or fused ossicles. |
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Explain how one is able to localize the source of a sound.
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We have 2 ears, so we hear "in stereo". The sounds reach the ears at different times, so we are able to tell where the sound is coming from.
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What happens to the special sense organs as we age?
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The sense organs become less active. In the eyes, presbyopia happens with aging, which is a loss of elasticity of the lens. The eyes become dry and more vulnerable to bacterial infection and irritation. The organ of Corti suffers from degeneration or atropy, and it is hard to hear high pitch tones and speech sounds. This is called presbycusis. In the 40s, smell and taste become diminished because of the loss of these receptor cells.
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List the five basic taste sensations
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Sweet
Salty Bitter Sour Umami |
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List the factors that can modify taste
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temperature
texture smell |
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Explain the difference between the pulmonary circuit and the systemic circuit
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The pulmonary circuit brings blood to the lungs for gas exchange and brings it back to the heart.
The systemic circuit brings oxygen- and nutrient-rich blood to the body tissues |
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List three factors that influence blood pressure
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Autonomic nervous system
Temperature Diet |
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List two ways to improve cardiovascular health
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Exercise regularly
Eat a diet low in fats and cholesterol |
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Circulation of blood path
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Superior or inferior vena cava
Right atrium Right ventricle Pulmonary trunk Pulmonary arteries Lungs Pulmonary veins Left atrium Left ventricle Aorta Body arteries Capillaries Body veins |
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Heart contraction
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systole
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heart relaxation
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diastole
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amount of blood pumped out in each heart beat
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stroke volume
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events of one complete heart beat
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cardiac cycle
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sound of valves opening and closing
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heart sounds
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abnormal or unusual heart sounds
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murmurs
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thick vessels carrying oxygenated blood from the heart
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arteries
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vessels carrying blood back to the heart
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veins
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small vessels only one cell layer thick for easy gas exchange
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capillaries
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large artery coming out of the heart
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aorta
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large vein leading into the heart
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vena cava
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pressure of blood exerted against inner walls of blood vessels
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blood pressure
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pressure wave through arteries caused by beat of left ventricle
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pulse
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high blood pressure
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hypertension
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changes in the walls of large arteries consisting of lipid deposits on artery walls
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atherosclerosis
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interior layer of a blood vessel consisting of epithelial cells
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tunica intima
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layer of a blood vessel consisting of mostly smooth muscle
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tunica media
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layer of a blood vessel consisting of fibrous connective tissue
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tunica externa
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List three examples of cranial nerves
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optic
olfactory vagus |
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List two factors that may have harmful effects on brain development of newborns
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Maternal infection
Maternal smoking |
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List two congenital brain disorders
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cerebral palsy
anencephaly |
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Explain why brain size and weight decrease with age
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The human brain reaches its full size in a young adult. Over the next 60 years or so, neurons are damages and they die. Because the nervous system is formed before birth, these neurons don't grow back, so the brain size and weight decreases.
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List the major structures found in the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
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Central - brain and spinal cord
Peripheral - all other nerves |
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Cells that supports, insulate, and protect neurons of CNA
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neuroglia
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nerve cells
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neurons
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contains nucleus of neuron
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cell body
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fibers which send impulse to cell body
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dendrites
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fibers that send impulse away from cell body
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axon
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branching ends of axon
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axonal terminal
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gap between axonal terminal and next neuron
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synaptic cleft
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fatty material which wraps around nerve fibers to insulate
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myelin sheath
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produce myelin sheath
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Schwann cells
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collections of cell bodies in CNA
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nuclei
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collections of cell bodies in PNS
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ganglia
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bundles of fibers running through CNS
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tracts
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bundles of fibers running through PNS
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nerves
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myelinated fibers of CNS
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white matter
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unmyelinated fibers of CNS
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gray matter
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neurons which conduct impulses from sensory receptors to CNS
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sensory neurons
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neurons which transmit impulses from CNS to muscles and glands
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motor neurons
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neural pathway of reflex
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reflex arc
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rapid, predictable, and involuntary response
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reflex
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t or f
Cerebrospinal fluid forms a watery cushion around the brain and spinal cord |
true
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t or f
the blood-brain barrier helps to keep the brain's internal environment chaotic by bringing in blood-borne substances |
false
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t or f
a brain contusion usually causes permanent damage |
true
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t or f
a concussion is also known as cerebral edema |
false
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t or f
strokes of CVAs are caused by a blood clot or rupture |
true
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t or f
Alzheimer's disease results in increased cognitive and memory functions |
false
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t or f
the spinal cord is a one-way conduction pathway to the brain |
false
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t or f
gray matter is found on the interior of the spinal cord |
true
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what is the largest brain region?
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cerebrum
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What are elevated ridges of the brain's cortex called?
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gyri
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Which lobe controls vision?
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occipital
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Which lobe contains te primary motor area?
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frontal
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Which part is not in the diencephalon?
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pons
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Which part of the brain stem controls visceral activities such as heart rate?
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medulla oblongata
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What is the order o the meninges from exterior to interior?
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Dura mater
pia mater arachnoid mater |
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Sympathetic or parasympathetic
prepares the body for a threat |
sympathetic
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sympathetic or parasympathetic
resting and digesting system |
parasympathetic
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sympathetic or parasympathetic
includes some cranial nerves and nerves between S2 and S4 of spinal cord |
parasympathetic
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sympathetic or parasympathetic
increases heart rate and blood pressure |
sympathetic
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sympathetic or parasympathetic
decreases demands on cardiovascular system |
parasympathetic
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sympathetic or parasympathetic
"fight or flight" reflexes |
sympathetic
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sympathetic or parasympathetic
includes nerves between T1 and L2 of spinal cord |
sympathetic
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Events of the nerve impulse in the correct sequence
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Resting membrane
Depolarization Action potential Repolarization |
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List the two main components of blood
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plasma
formed elements |
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What is the volume of blood in an average-sized adult?
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5-6 liters
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List five components of plasma
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water
salts respiratory gases hormones plasma proteins |
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What happens during a transfusion reaction and why does it occur?
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Agglutination occurs because the antigens on the red blood cells are not the same. The antibodies of RBCs bind to foreign red blood cells which causes clumping. After clumping, the RBCs are lysed, or ruptured, to kill them.
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Explain the basis of physiological jaundice in some newborns.
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Physiological jaundice occurs when the fetal red blood cells are destroyed at such a rapid rate that the immature fetal liver cannot rid the body of the products of hemoglobin breakdown int he bile fast enough.
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List two blood disorders found in the elerly
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anemia
clotting disorders |
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red blood cells, carry oxygen to all parts of the body
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erythrocytes
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white blood cells, part of immune system
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leukocytes
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needed to clot blood
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platelets
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decrease in oxygen-carrying ability of blood
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anemia
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increase in red blood cells
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polycythemia
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high white blood cell count, usually indicated infection
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leukocytosis
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low white blood cell count
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leukopenia
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stem cell producing all types of formed elements
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hemocytoblast
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stoppage of blood flow
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hemostasis
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clot that develops in unbroken blood vessel
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thrombus
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clot that breaks away from vessel wall
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embolus
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insufficient number of circulating platelets
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thrombocytopenia
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genetic disease resulting from lack of any blood clotting factors
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hemophilia
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blood with A antigens
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type A
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blood with B antigens
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type B
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blood with A and B antigens, least common type
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type AB
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blood without A or B antigens, most common type
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type O
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