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260 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
WHAT IS BIOCHEMISTRY? |
THE STUDY OF THE MOLECULES THAT COMPOSE LIVING ORGANISMS--ESPECIALLY MOLECULES UNIQUE TO LIVING THINGS, SUCH AS CARBOHYDRATES, FATS, PROTEINS, AND NUCLEIC ACID. |
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What are the six "Major" elements of the body (make up 98.5% of the body's weight) and their symbols. |
oxygen (O), Carbon(C), Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen (N), calcium (Ca), and Phosphorus (P). |
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What are the 6 "Lesser elements (Total 0.8%) of the body and their symbols |
Sulfur (S), Potassium (K), Sodium (Na), chlorine (Cl), Magnesium (Mg), and Iron (Fe).
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What are the 12 "Trace" elements (Total 0.7%) of the body? |
Chromium (Cr), Cobalt (Co), Copper (Cu), Fluorine (F), Iodine (I), Manganese (Mn), Molybdenum (Mo), Selenium (Se), Silicon (Si), Tin (Sn), Vanadium (V), and Zinc (Zn).
Not one of them account for more than 2% |
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What is a Chemical Element? |
The simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties. |
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What is an atomic number? |
the number of protons in its nucleus. |
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How many of the naturally occurring elements on earth play normal physiological roles in humans? |
24 |
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WHAT ARE MINERALS |
INORGANIC ELEMENTS THAT ARE EXTRACTED FROM THE SOIL BY PLANTS AND PASSED UP THE FOOD CHAIN TO HUMANS AND OTHER ORGANISMS.
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HOW MUCH OF THE BODY IS CONSTITUTED BY MINERALS BY WEIGHT? |
4% NEARLY THREE-QUARTERS OF THIS IS Ca AND P; THE REST IS MAINLY Cl, Mg, K, Na, and S.
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WHAT IS A MOLECULE? |
CHEMICAL PARTICLES COMPOSED OF TWO OR MORE ATOMS UNITED BY A CHEMICAL BOND |
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WHAT IS A CHEMICAL COMPOUND? |
MOLECULES COMPOSED OF TWO OR MORE ELEMENTS |
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WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF MINERALS IN THE BODY? |
THEY CONTRIBUTE SIGNIFICANTLY TO BODY STRUCTURE. MANY PROTEINS INCLUDE SULFUR, AND PHOSPHORUS IS A MAJOR COMPONENT OF NUCLEIC ACIDS, ATP, AND CELL MEMBRANES. MINERALS ALSO ENABLE ENZYMES AND OTHER ORGANIC MOLECULES TO FUNCTION. SOME ENZYMES FUNCTION ONLY WHEN MANGANESE, ZINC, COPPER, OR OTHER MINERALS ARE BOUND TO THEM. THE ELECTROLYTES NEEDED FOR NERVE AND MUSCLE FUNCTION ARE MINERAL SALTS. |
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WHAT IS THE ATOMIC MASS OF AN ELEMENT? |
IT IS APPROXIMATELY EQUAL TO ITS TOTAL NUMBER OF PROTONS AND NEUTRONS. |
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HOW MANY ELECTRONS DOES IT TAKE TO EQUAL THE MASS OF ONE PROTON? |
1,836. SO, FOR THE MOST PART WE CAN DISREGARD THEIR MASS. |
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THE NUMBER OF ELECTRON SHELLS IN ELEMENTS THAT ARE ORDINARILY INVOLVED IN HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY DO NOT EXCEED______? |
FOUR |
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WHAT IS THE BASIS FOR RADIOACTIVITY? |
ALTHOUGH DIFFERENT ISOTOPES OF AN ELEMENT EXHIBIT IDENTICAL CHEMICAL BEHAVIOR, THEY DIFFER IN PHYSICAL BEHAVIOR. MANY OF THEM ARE UNSTABLE AND DECAY (BREAK DOWN) TO MORE STABLE ISOTOPES BY DIVING OFF RADIATION. UNSTABLE ISOTOPES ARE THEREFORE CALLED RADIOISOTOPES, AND THE PROCESS OF DECAY IS CALLED RADIOACTIVITY |
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WHAT IS AN ISOTOPE? |
EACH OF TWO OR MORE FORMS OF THE SAME ELEMENT THAT CONTAIN EQUAL NUMBERS OF PROTONS BUT DIFFERENT NUMBERS OF NEUTRONS IN THEIR NUCLEI, AND HENCE DIFFER IN RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS BUT NOT IN CHEMICAL PROPERTIES; IN PARTICULAR, A RADIOACTIVE FORM OF AN ELEMENT. |
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WHAT IS IONIZING RADIATION? |
HIGH-ENERGY RADIATION, WHICH EJECTS ELECTRONS FROM ATOMS, CONVERTING ATOMS TO IONS. |
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IN HIGH DOSES, IONIZING RADIATION IS _______? |
QUICKLY FATAL |
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IN LOWER DOSES, IONIZING RADIATION CAN BE_______? |
MUTAGENIC (CAUSING MUTATIONS IN DNA) AND CARCINOGENIC (TRIGGERING CANCER AS A RESULT OF MUTATION). |
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WHAT ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION? |
ULTRAVIOLET RAYS, X-RAYS, AND THREE KINDS OF RADIATION PRODUCED BY NUCLEAR DECAY: ALPHA PARTICLES, BETA PARTICLES, AND GAMMA RAYS. |
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WHAT ARE THE HAZARDS OF ALPHA AND BETA PARTICLES |
THEY ARE RELATIVELY HARMLESS WHEN EMITTED BY SOURCES OUTSIDE THE BODY, BUT THEY ARE VERY DANGEROUS WHEN EMITTED BY RADIOISOTOPES THAT HAVE GOTTEN INTO THE BODY. |
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WHAT IS THE PHYSICAL HALF-LIFE OF A RADIOISOTOPE? |
THE TIME REQUIRED FOR 50% OF ITS ATOMS TO DECAY TO A MORE STABLE STATE. |
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WHAT IS THE BIOLOGICAL HALF -LIFE OF A RADIOISOTOPE? |
THE TIME REQUIRED FOR HALF OF IT TO DISAPPEAR FROM THE BODY. SOME IS LOST BY RADIOACTIVE DECAY AND EVEN MORE BY EXCRETION FROM THE BODY. |
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WHAT IS THE MOST SIGNIFICANT NATURAL SOURCE OF RADIATION? |
RADON: A GAS PRODUCED BY THE DECAY OF URANIUM IN THE EARTH: IT CAN ACCUMULATE IN BUILDINGS TO UNHEALTHY LEVELS. |
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WHAT ARE SOME ARTIFICIAL SOURCES OF RADIATION EXPOSURE? |
MEDICAL X-RAYS, RADIATION THERAPY, AND CONSUMER PRODUCTS SUCH AS COLOR TELEVISIONS, SMOKE DETECTORS, AND LUMINOUS WATCH DIALS. |
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WHAT IS AN ION? |
CHARGED PARTICLES WITH UNEQUAL NUMBERS OF PROTONS AND ELECTRONS. |
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WHAT IS IONIZATION? |
IONS FORM BECAUSE ELEMENTS WITH ONE TO THREE VALENCE ELECTRONS TEND TO GIVE THEM UP, AND THOSE WITH FOUR TO SEVEN ELECTRONS TEND TO GAIN MORE. IF AN ATOM OF THE FIRST KIND IS EXPOSED TO AN ATOM OF THE SECOND, ELECTRONS MAY TRANSFER FROM ON TO THE OTHER. THIS PROCESS IS CALLED IONIZATION. |
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WHAT IS AN ANION? |
IN IONIZATION, THE PARTICLE THAT GAINS ELECTRONS ACQUIRES A NEGATIVE CHARGE.
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WHAT IS A CATION? |
IN IONIZATION, THE PARTICLE THAT LOSES ELECTRONS AND ACQUIRES A POSITIVE CHARGE (BECAUSE IT THEN HAS A SURPLUS OF PROTONS). |
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WHAT IS A VALENCE? |
THE CHARGE ON AN ION. |
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WHAT ARE ELECTROLYTES? |
SUBSTANCES THAT IONIZE IN WATER (ACIDS, BASES, OR SALTS) AND FORM SOLUTIONS CAPABLE OF CONDUCTING ELECTRICITY. |
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HOW ARE ELECTROLYTES IMPORTANT TO THE BODY? |
CHEMICAL REACTIVITY (AS WHEN CALCIUM PHOSPHATE BECOMES INCORPORATED INTO THE BONE) OSMOTIC EFFECTS (INFLUENCE ON WATER CONTENT AND DISTRIBUTION IN THE BODY) ELECTRICAL EFFECTS (WHICH ARE ESSENTIAL TO NERVE AND MUSCLE FUNCTION) |
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WHAT ARE FREE RADICALS? |
CHEMICAL PARTICLES WITH AN ODD NUMBER OF ELECTRONS. |
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HOW ARE FREE RADICALS PRODUCED? |
BY SOME NORMAL METABOLIC REACTIONS OF THE BODY (ATP - PRODUCING OXIDATION REACTIONS IN MITOCHONDRIA, AND A REACTION THAT SOME WHITE BLOOD CELLS USE TO KILL BACTERIA).
BY RADIATION (ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION AND X-RAYS)
BY CHEMICALS (NITRITES, USED AS PRESERVATIVES IN SOME WINE, MEAT, AND OTHER FOODS)
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WHAT ARE SOME DAMAGES CAUSED BY FREE RADICALS? |
SOME FORMS OF CANCER AND MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION, THE DEATH OF HEART TISSUE. |
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WHAT IS AN ANTIOXIDANT? |
A CHEMICAL THAT NEUTRALIZED FREE RADICALS. |
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WHAT ARE SOME ANTIOXIDANTS OBTAINED FROM DIET? |
SELENIUM, VITAMIN E, VITAMIN C (ASCORBIC ACID), AND CAROTENOIDS. |
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WHAT IS AN ISOMER? |
MOLECULES WITH IDENTICAL MOLECULAR FORMULAE BUT DIFFERENT ARRANGEMENTS OF THEIR ATOMS. |
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WHAT IS THE MOLECULAR WEIGHT OF A COMPOUND? |
THE SUM OF THE ATOMIC WEIGHTS OF ITS ATOMS. |
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WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS? |
IONIC BOND COVALENT BOND SINGLE COVALENT DOUBLE COVALENT NONPOLAR COVALENT POLAR COVALENT HYDROGEN BOND VAN DER WAALS FORCE |
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IONIC BOND |
RELATIVELY WEAK ATTRACTION BETWEEN AN ANION AND A CATION. EASILY DISRUPTED IN WATER, AS WHEN SALT DISSOLVES. |
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COVALENT BOND |
SHARING OF ONE OR MORE PAIRS OF ELECTRONS BETWEEN NUCLEI.
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SINGLE COVALENT |
SHARING OF ONE ELECTRON PAIR. |
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DOUBLE COVALENT |
SHARING OF TWO ELECTRON PAIRS. OFTEN OCCURS BETWEEN CARBON ATOMS, BETWEEN CARBON AND OXYGEN, AND BETWEEN CARBON AND NITROGEN. |
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NONPOLAR COVALENT |
COVALENT BOND IN WHICH ELECTRONS ARE EQUALLY ATTRACTED TO BOTH NUCLEI. MAY BE SINGLE OR DOUBLE. STRONGEST TYPE OF CHEMICAL BOND.
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POLAR COVALENT |
COVALENT BOND IN WHICH ELECTRONS ARE MORE ATTRACTED TO ONE NUCLEUS THAN TO THE OTHER, RESULTING IN SLIGHTLY POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REGIONS IN ONE MOLECULE. MAY BE SINGLE OR DOUBLE. |
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HYDROGEN BOND |
Weak attraction between polarized molecules or between polarized regions of the same molecule. Important in the three-dimensional folding and coiling of large molecules. Easily disrupted by temperature and pH changes. |
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Van der Waals force |
WEAK, BRIEF ATTRACTION DUE TO RANDOM DISTURBANCES IN THE ELECTRON CLOUDS OF ADJACENT ATOMS. WEAKEST OF ALL BONDS. |
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WHAT ARE THE BONDS OF GREATEST PHYSIOLOGICAL INTEREST? |
IONIC BONDS COVALENT BONDS HYDROGEN BONDS Van der Waals force |
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WHAT IS A MIXTURE? |
A MIXTURE CONSISTS OF SUBSTANCES TAT ARE PHYSICALLY BLENDED BUT NOT CHEMICALLY COMBINED. |
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DESCRIBE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A MIXTURE AND A COMPOUND. |
A MIXTURE CONSISTS OF SUBSTANCES THAT ARE PHYSICALLY BLENDED BUT NOT CHEMICALLY COMBINED. EACH SUBSTANCE RETAINS ITS OWN CHEMICAL PROPERTIES.
A COMPOUND CONSISTS OF MOLECULES THAT ARE CHEMICALLY BONDED. A COMPOUND HAS PROPERTIES MUCH DIFFERENT FROM THE PROPERTIES OF ITS ELEMENTS. |
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DEPENDING ON AGE, SEX, FAT CONTENT, AND OTHER FACTORS; WHAT % OF YOUR BODY WEIGHT IS WATER? |
50% - 75% |
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WHAT TWO PARTICULAR ASPECTS OF WATER'S STRUCTURE ARE IMPORTANT? |
1. ITS ATOMS ARE JOINED BY POLAR COVALENT BONDS.
2. THE MOLECULE IS V-SHAPED, WITH A 105 DEGREE BOND ANGLE. |
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IN WATER, WHAT SET OF PROPERTIES ACCOUNT FOR ITS ABILITY TO SUPPORT LIFE? |
SOLVENCY COHESION ADHESION CHEMICAL REACTIVITY THERMAL STABILITY
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SUBSTANCES THAT DISSOLVE IN WATER ARE SAID TO BE __________ |
HYDROPHILIC |
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SUBSTANCES THAT DO NOT DISSOLVE IN WATER, SUCH AS FATS, ARE SAID TO BE__________ |
HYDROPHOBIC |
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THE ABILITY TO DISSOLVE OTHER CHEMICALS |
SOLVENCY |
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THE TENDENCY OF ONE SUBSTANCE TO CLING TO ANOTHER |
ADHESION
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THE TENDENCY OF MOLECULES OF THE SAME SUBSTANCE TO CLING TO EACH OTHER |
COHESION |
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THE _______________ OF WATER IS ITS ABILITY TO PARTICIPATE IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS. |
CHEMICAL REACTIVITY |
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THE _______________ OF WATER HELPS TO STABILIZE THE INTERNAL TEMPERATURE OF THE BODY. |
THERMAL STABILITY |
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THE BASE UNIT OF HEAT |
CALORIE: 1 CAL IS THE AMOUNT OF HEAT THAT RAISES THE TEMP OF 1g OF WATER 1 DEGREE CELSIUS.
WATER HAS A HIGH HEAT CAPACITY. |
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WHAT ARE THE THREE CLASSIFICATIONS OF MIXTURES? |
SOLUTIONS COLLOIDS SUSPENSIONS |
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SOLUTION |
CONSISTS OF PARTICLES OF MATTER CALLED THE SOLUTE MIXED WITH A MORE ABUNDANT SUBSTANCE (USUALLY WATER) CALLED THE SOLVENT. |
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PROPERTIES WHICH DEFINE A SOLUTION |
The solute particles are under 1 nanometer (n) in size. The solute and solvent therefore cannot be visually distinguished from each other, even with a microscope. Such small particles do not scatter light noticeably, so solutions are usually transparent. The solute particles will pass through most selectively permeable membranes. The solute does not separate from the solvent when the solution is allowed to stand. |
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THE MOST COMMON __________IN THE BODY ARE MIXTURES OF PROTEIN AND WATER, SUCH AS THE ALBUMIN IN BLOOD PLASMA. |
COLLOIDS |
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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES THAT DEFINE COLLOIDS |
The colloidal particles range from 1 to 100 nm in size.
Particles this large scatter light, so colloids are usually cloudy.
The particles are too large to pass through most selectively permeable membranes.
The particles are still small enough, however, to remain permanently mixed with the solvent when the mixture stands. |
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THE BLOOD CELLS IN OUR BLOOD PLASMA EXEMPLIFY A _______________ |
SUSPENSION
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PROPERTIES THAT DEFINE SUSPENSIONS. |
The suspended particles exceed 100 nm in size Such large particles render suspensions cloudy or opaque. The particles are too large to penetrate selectively permeable membranes. The particles are too heavy to remain permanently suspended, so suspensions separate on standing. Blood cells form a suspension in blood plasma and settle when allowed to stand. |
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WHAT IS AN EMULSION? |
A SUSPENSION OF ONE LIQUID IN ANOTHER, SUCH AS OIL-AND-VINEGAR SALAD DRESSING AND THE FAT IN BREAST MILK. |
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CAN A MIXTURE FIT INTO MORE THAN ONE CATEGORY: SOLUTION, COLLOID, OR SUSPENSION? |
YES. BLOOD IS PERFECT EXAMPLE--IT IS A SOLUTION OF SODIUM CHLORIDE, A COLLOID OF PROTEIN, AND A SUSPENSION OF CELLS. |
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SOLUTIONS ARE OFTEN DESCRIBED IN TERMS OF THEIR ____________ |
CONCENTRATION--HOW MUCH SOLUTE IS PRESENT IN A GIVEN VOLUME OF A SOLUTION. |
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THE DIFFERENT MEASURES OF CONCENTRATION |
WEIGHT PER VOLUME
PERCENTAGES
MOLARITY (HOW MANY MOLECULES PRESENT)
ELECTROLYTE CONCENTRATIONS (Eq) or milliequivalents per liter (mEq/L) |
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IF WE KNOW THE MS AND WEIGH OUT THAT MANY GRAMS OF THE SUBSTANCE, WE HAVE A QUANTITY KNOWN AS _____________. |
1 mole |
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ONE ______ OF AN ELECTROLYTE IS THE AMOUNT THAT WOULD ELECTRICALLY NEUTRALIZE 1 mole HYDROGEN IONS (H+) OR HYDROXIDE IONS (OH-). |
equivalent (Eq)
CONCENTRATIONS USUALLY EXPRESSED IN milliequivalents per liter(mEq/L) |
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WHY DO WE NEED TO KNOW THE MOLARITY (M) OF A SOLUTION? |
THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF A CHEMICAL DEPENDS ON HOW MANY MOLECULES OF IT ARE PRESENT IN A GIVEN VOLUME, NOT THE WEIGHT OF THE CHEMICAL. |
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WHY DO WE NEED TO KNOW THE ELECTROLYTE equivalent (Eq) of a solution? |
THEIR ELECTRICAL EFFECTS, WHICH DETERMINE SUCH THINGS AS NERVE, HEART, AND MUSCLE ACTIONS, DEPEND NOT ONLY ON THEIR CONCENTRATION BUT ALSO ON THEIR ELECTRICAL CHARGE. |
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AN _________ IS ANY PROTON DONOR, A MOLECULE THAT RELEASES A PROTON (H+) IN WATER. |
ACID |
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WHAT IS A MOLECULE THAT ACCEPTS A PROTON (H+)? |
A BASE
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ACIDITY IS EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF __ , A MEASURE DERIVED FROM THE __________ OF H+. |
pH MOLARITY (HOW MANY MOLECULES)
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MOLARITY IS REPRESENTED BY ___. |
SQUARE BRACKETS
SO, THE MOLARITY OF H+ IS SYMBOLIZED [H+]. |
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pH IS THE NEGATIVE __________ OF HYDROGEN ION MOLARITY. |
LOGARITHM
pH = -log [H+]
basically means to what power
1000: 1000 = 10 X 10 X 10 = 10 to the third power |
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LOGARITHM |
THE EXPONENT REQUIRED TO PRODUCE A GIVEN NUMBER |
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IN PURE WATER, ______________ MOLECULES IONIZES INTO HYDROGEN AND HYDROXIDE IONS. |
1 IN 10 MILLION |
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pH OF WATER IS NEUTRAL BECAUSE IT CONTAINS EQUAL AMOUNTS OF H+ AND OH- |
SINCE 1 IN 10 MILLION MOLECULES IONIZE, THE MOLARITY OF H+ AND THE pH OF WATER ARE:
[H+] = 0.0000001 = 10 to neg 7 M
log [H+] = -7
pH = -log [H+] = 7 |
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THE _______ THE pH VALUE, THE MORE HYDROGEN IONS A SOLUTION HAS AND THE MORE ________ IT IS. |
LOWER
ACIDIC |
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SINCE THE pH scale is logarithmic, a change of one whole number on the scale represents a _______ change in H+. |
10-FOLD
A SOLUTION WITH A pH OF 4 IS 10 TIMES AS ACIDIC AS ONE WITH pH OF 5. |
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NORMAL pH OF THE BLOOD |
RANGE OF 7.35 - 7.45 |
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CHEMICAL SOLUTIONS THAT RESIST CHANGES IN pH |
BUFFERS |
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ANOTHER NAME FOR BASIC IN pH |
ALKALINE |
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THE CAPACITY TO DO WORK |
ENERGY |
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TO MOVE SOMETHING, WHETHER IT IS A MUSCLE OR A MOLECULE. |
WORK |
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BREAKING CHEMICAL BONDS BUILDING MOLECULES PUMPING BLOOD CONTRACTING SKELETAL MUSCLES
ALL OF THE BODYS ACTIVITIEIS |
EXAMPLES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL WORK |
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ENERGY CONTAINED IN AN OBJECT BECAUSE OF ITS POSITION OR INTERNAL STATE BUT THAT IS NOT DOING WORK AT THE TIME. |
POTENTIAL ENERGY |
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ENERGY OF MOTION, ENERGY THAT IS DOING WORK. |
KINETIC ENERGY |
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POTENTIAL ENERGY STORED IN THE BONDS OF MOLECULES. CHEMICAL REACTIONS RELEASE THIS ENERGY AND MAKE IT AVAILABLE FOR PHYSIOLOGICAL WORK. |
CHEMICAL ENERGY |
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THE KINETIC ENERGY OF MOLECULAR MOTION. THE TEMPERATURE OF A SUBSTANCE IS A MEASURE OF RATE OF THIS MOTION. |
HEAT |
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THE KINETIC ENERGY OF MOVING "PACKETS" OF RADIATION CALLED PHOTONS. |
ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY |
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________ HAS BOTH POTENTIAL AND KINETIC FORMS OF ENERGY. |
ELECTRICAL ENERGY
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POTENTIAL ENERGY AVAILABLE IN A SYSTEM TO DO USEFUL WORK. |
FREE ENERGY
THE MOST RELEVANT FREE ENERGY IS THE ENERGY STORED IN CHEMICAL BONDS OF ORGANIC MOLECULES. |
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PROCESS IN WHICH A COVALENT OR IONIC BOND IS FORMED OR BROKEN. |
CHEMICAL REACTION |
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THE COURSE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION IS SYMBOLIZED BY A ______________ THAT TYPICALLY SHOWS THE REACTANTS ON THE LEFT, THE PRODUCTS ON THE RIGHT, AND A N ARROW POINTING FROM THE REACTANTS TO THE PRODUCTS. |
CHEMICAL EQUATION |
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CHEMICAL REACTIONS CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS____________ , _______________, OR __________. |
DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS
SYNTHESIS REACTIONS
EXCHANGE REACTIONS |
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A CHEMICAL REACTION IN WHICH A LARGE MOLECULE BREAKS DOWN INTO TWO OR MORE SMALLER ONES. |
DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS |
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A CHEMICAL REACTION IN WHICH TWO OR MORE SMALL MOLECULES COMBINE TO FORM A LARGER ONE. |
SYNTHESIS REACTIONS |
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TWO MOLECULES EXCHANGE ATOMS OR GROUPS OF ATOMS. |
EXCHANGE REACTIONS |
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WHAT KIND OF REACTIONS CAN GO IN EITHER DIRECTION? |
REVERSIBLE REACTIONS |
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WHAT DETERMINES THE DIRECTION IN WHICH A REVERSIBLE REACTION GOES? |
THE RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF SUBSTANCES ON EACH SIDE OF THE EQUATION. |
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REVERSIBLE REACTIONS FOLLOW THE _______: THEY PROCEED FROM THE REACTANTS IN GREATER QUANTITY TO THE SUBSTANCES WITH THE LESSER QUANTITY. |
LAW OF MASS ACTIONS |
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IN THE ABSENCE OF UPSETTING INFLUENCES, REVERSIBLE REACTIONS EXIST IN A STATE OF ______________, IN WHICH THE RATIO OF PRODUCTS TO REACTANTS IS STABLE. |
EQUILIBRIUM |
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DESCRIBE CHEMICAL REACTION RATES |
CHEMICAL REACTIONS ARE BASED ON MOLECULAR MOTION AND COLLISIONS. THE RATE OF A REACTION DEPENDS ON THE NATURE OF THE REACTANTS AND ON THE FREQUENCY AND FORCE OF THESE COLLISIONS. |
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WHAT ARE SOME FACTORS THAT AFFECT REACTION RATES? |
CONCENTRATION
TEMPERATURE
CATALYSTS |
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HOW DOES THE CONCENTRATION AFFECT REACTION RATES? |
REACTION RATES INCREASE WHEN THE REACTANTS ARE MORE CONCENTRATED. THIS IS BECAUSE THE MOLECULES ARE MORE CROWDED AND COLLIDE MORE FREQUENTLY. |
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HOW DOES TEMPERATURE AFFECT REACTION RATES? |
REACTION RATE INCREASES AS THE TEMPERATURE RISES. THIS IS BECAUSE HEAT CAUSES MOLECULES TO MOVE MORE RAPIDLY AND COLLIDE WITH GREATER FORCE AND FREQUENCY. |
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WHAT ARE CATALYSTS AND HOW TO THEY AFFECT REACTION RATES? |
THESE ARE SUBSTANCES THAT TEMPORARILY BIND TO REACTANTS, HOLD THEM IN A FAVORABLE POSITION TO REACT WITH EACH OTHER, AND MAY CHANGE THE SHAPES OF REACTANTS IN WAYS THAT MAKE THEM MORE LIKELY TO REACT. BY REDUCING THE ELEMENT OF CHANCE IN MOLECULAR COLLISIONS, A CATALYST SPEEDS UP A REACTION. IT THEN RELEASES THE PRODUCTS AND IS AVAILABLE TO REPEAT THE PROCESS WITH MORE REACTANTS. THE CATALYST ITSELF IS NOT CONSUMED OR CHANGED BY THE REACTION. THE MOST IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS ARE ENZYMES. |
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ALL THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN THE BODY ARE COLLECTIVELY CALLED_____________. |
METABOLISM |
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WHAT ARE THE TWO DIVISIONS OF METABOLISM? |
ANABOLISM
CATABOLISM |
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CONSISTS OF ENERGY-RELEASING DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS. |
CATABOLISM (EXERGONIC)
CATO = DOWN, TO BREAK DOWN
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CONSISTS OF ENERGY-STORING SYNTHESIS REACTIONS, SUCH AS THE PRODUCTION OF PROTEIN OR FAT. |
ANABOLISM (ENDERGONIC)
ANA = UP, TO BUILD UP |
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ANBOLISM IS DRIVEN BY THE ENERGY THAT CATABOLISM RELEASES, SO ENDERGONIC AND EXERGONIC PROCESSES, ANABOLISM AND CATABOLISM, ARE INSEPARABLY LINKED. |
FACT |
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ANY CHEMICAL REACTION IN WHICH A MOLECULE GIVES UP ELECTRONS AND RELEASES ENERGY |
OXIDATION
A MOLECULE IS OXIDIZED BY THIS PROCESS
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IN OXIDATION, WHATEVER MOLECULE TAKES THE ELECTRONS FROM THE MOLECULE BEING OXIDIZED. |
OXIDIZING AGENT (ELECTRON ACCEPTOR)
MANY TIMES OXYGEN IS THE ELECTRON ACCEPTOR. |
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THIS TERM STEMS FROM THE FACT THAT OXYGEN IS OFTEN INVOLVED AS THE ELECTRON ACCEPTOR. |
OXIDATION |
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DO ALL OXIDATION REACTIONS INVOLVE OXYGEN? |
NO
EXAMPLE: WHEN YEAST FERMENTS GLUCOSE TO ALCOHOL, NO OXYGEN IS REQUIRED. |
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CHEMICAL REACTION IN WHICH A MOLECULE GAINS ELECTRONS AND ENERGY. |
REDUCTION |
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WHEN A MOLECULE ACCEPTS ELECTRONS, IT IS SAID TO BE ______________. |
REDUCED |
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A MOLECULE THAT DONATES ELECTRONS TO ANOTHER IS THEREFORE CALLED A ____________. |
REDUCING AGENT (ELECTRON DONOR) |
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THE OXIDATION OF ONE MOLECULE IS ALWAYS ACCOMPANIED BY THE REDUCTION OF ANOTHER, SO THESE ELECTRON TRANSFERS ARE KNOWN AS ____________________. |
OXIDATION-REDUCTION (redox) REACTIONS |
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IT IS NOT NECESSARY THAT ONLY ELECTRONS BE TRANSFERED IN A REDOX REACTION. OFTEN, THE ELECTRONS ARE TRANSFERRED IN THE FORM OF ________________. |
HYDROGEN ATOMS |
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REACTIONS IN WHICH THERE IS A NET RELEASE OF ENERGY. THE PRODUCTS HAVE LESS TOTAL FREE ENERGY THAN THE REACTANTS DID. |
EXERGONIC REACTIONS |
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AN EXERGONIC REACTION IN WHICH ELECTRONS ARE REMOVED FROM A REACTANT. ELECTRONS MAY BE REMOVED ONE OR TWO AT A TIME AND MAY BE REMOVED IN THE FORM OF HYDROGEN ATOMS (H or H2). THE PRODUCT IS THEN SAID TO BE OXIDIZED. |
OXIDATION |
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A REACTION SUCH AS DIGESTION AND CELL RESPIRATION, IN WHICH LARGER MOLECULES ARE BROKEN DOWN INTO SMALLER ONES. |
DECOMPOSITION |
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THE SUM OF ALL DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS IN THE BODY. |
CATABOLISM
CAT = ENERGY RELEASING |
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REACTIONS IN WHICH THERE IS A NET INPUT OF ENERGY. THE PRODUCTS HAVE MORE TOTAL FREE ENERGY THAN THE REACTANTS DID. |
ENDERGONIC REACTIONS |
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AN ENDERGONIC REACTION IN WHICH ELECTRONS ARE DONATED TO A REACTANT. THE PRODUCT IS THEN SAID TO BE REDUCED. |
REDUCTION |
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A REACTION SUCH AS PROTEIN AND GLYCOGEN SYNTHESIS, IN WHICH TWO OR MORE SMALLER MOLECULES ARE COMBINED INTO A LARGER ONE. |
SYNTHESIS |
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THE SUM OF ALL SYNTHESIS REACTIONS IN THE BODY. |
ANABOLISM
ANA = ENERGY STORING |
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THE STUDY OF COMPOUNDS OF CARBON |
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY |
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WHAT ARE THE FOUR PRIMARY CATEGORIES OF ORGANIC MOLECULES? |
CARBOHYDRATES
LIPIDS
PROTEINS
NUCLEIC ACID |
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WHY IS CARBON ESPECIALLY WELL SUITED TO SERVE AS THE STRUCTURAL FOUNDATION FOR MANY BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES? |
THEY HAVE FOUR VALENCE ELECTRONS, SO IT BONDS WITH OTHER ATOMS THAT CAN PROVIDE IT WITH FOUR MORE TO COMPLETE ITS VALENCE SHELL. THEY CAN READILY BOND WITH EACH OTHER AND CAN FORM LONG CHAINS, BRANCHED MOLECULES, AND RINGS---AN ENORMOUS VARIETY OF CARBON BACKBONES FOR ORGANIC MOLECULES. CARBON ALSO COMMONLY FORMS COVALENT BONDS WITH HYDROGEN, OXYGEN, NITROGEN, AND SULFUR. |
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SMALL CLUSTERS OF ATOMS THAT DETERMINE MANY OF THE PROPERTIES OF AN ORGANIC MOLECULE. |
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
CARBON BACKBONES CARRY A VARIETY OF FUNCTIONAL GROUPS. |
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WHAT ARE SOME COMMON FUNCTIONAL GROUPS OF ORGANIC MOLECULES?
(5 IN OUR BOOK) |
HYDROXYL (---OH) METHYL (---CH3) CARBOXYL (---COOH) AMINO (---NH3) PHOSPHATE (---H2PO4)
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HYDROXYL FUNCTIONAL GROUP OCCURS IN |
SUGARS
ALCOHOLS |
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METHYL FUNCTIONAL GROUP OCCURS IN |
FATS
OILS
STEROIDS
AMINO ACIDS |
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CARBOXYL FUNCTIONAL GROUP OCCURS IN |
AMINO ACIDS
SUGARS
PROTEINS
|
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AMINO FUNCTIONAL GROUP OCCURS IN |
AMINO ACIDS
PROTEINS |
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PHOSPHATE FUNCTIONAL GROUP OCCURS IN |
NUCLEIC ACID
ATP |
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SINCE CARBON CAN FORM LONG CHAINS, SOME ORGANIC MOLECULES ARE GIGANTIC ___________ WITH MOLECULAR WEIGHTS THAT RANGE FROM THE THOUSANDS (AS IN STARCH AND PROTEINS) TO THE MILLIONS (AS IN DNA). |
MACROMOLECULES |
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MOST MACROMOLECULES ARE _____________. |
POLYMERS |
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MOLECULES MADE OF A REPETITIVE SERIES OF IDENTICAL OR SIMILAR SUBUNITS CALLED MONOMERS. |
POLYMERS
poly = many; mer = part
THE BEADS ARE CALLED THE MONOMERS AND THE "NECKLACE" IS THE POLYMER. |
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ONE OF THE IDENTICAL OR SIMILAR SUBUNITS OF A LARGER MOLECULE IN THE DIMER TO POLYMER RANGE.
MANY OF THE SAME MOLECULES, OR SIMILAR MOLECULES. |
MONOMER
THE BEADS ARE CALLED THE MONOMERS AND THE "NECKLACE" IS THE POLYMER. |
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THE JOINING OF MONOMERS TO FORM A POLYMER IS CALLED ___________________. |
POLYMERIZATION |
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LIVING CELLS ACHIEVE POLYMERIZATION BY MEANS OF A REACTION CALLED_____________. |
DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS. (CONDENSATION) |
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A TYPE OF CONDENSATION REACTION IN WHICH MONOMERS JOIN TOGETHER INTO POLYMERS WHILE LOSING WATER MOLECULES. THIS PROCESS IS CARRIED OUT BY LOSING (-OH) FROM ONE OF THE MONOMERS AND (H) FROM ANOTHER MONOMER. THE TWO UNSTABLE MONOMERS JOIN TOGETHER, AND THE (-OH) AND (H) COMBINE FORMING WATER (H2O) |
DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS |
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THE END RESULT OF TWO MONOMERS IN DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS. |
DIMER
(TWO COVALENTLY BONDED MONOMERS THAT HAVE WATER SUCKED OUT OF THEM)
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A CHEMICAL REACTION THAT BREAKS A COVALENT BOND IN A MOLECULE BY ADDING AN --OH GROUP TO ONE SIDE OF THE BOND AND -H TO THE OTHER SIDE, THUS CONSUMING A WATER MOLECULE. |
HYDROLYSIS
OPPOSITE OF DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS |
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A HYDROPHILIC ORGANIC MOLECULE WITH THE GENERAL FORMULA (CH2O)n, WHERE n REPRESENTS THE NUMBER OF CARBON ATOMS. |
CARBOHYDRATE |
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IN CARBOHYDRATES, WHAT IS THE RATIO OF HYDROGEN TO OXYGEN? |
2:1 |
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WHAT ARE THE MOST FAMILIAR CARBOHYDRATES? |
SUGARS AND STARCHES |
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WHAT ARE THE SIMPLEST CARBOHYDRATES, USUALLY CALLED SIMPLE SUGARS? |
MONOMERS CALLED MONOSACCHARIDES |
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THE THREE MONOSACCHARIDES OF PRIMARY IMPORTANCE THAT HAVE THE MOLECULAR FORMULA C6H1206 AND ARE ISOMERS OF EACH OTHER. |
GLUCOSE
FUCTOSE
GALACTOSE
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HOW DO WE OBTAIN GLUCOSE, FRUCTOSE, AND GALACTOSE? |
BY THE DIGESTION OF MORE COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES. |
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WHAT ARE TWO MONOSACCHARIDES THAT ARE IMPORTANT COMPONENTS OF DNA AND RNA? |
RIBOSE
DEOXYRIBOSE |
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SUGARS COMPOSED OF TWO MONOSACCHARIDES |
DISACCHARIDES |
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WHAT ARE THE THREE DISACCHARIDES OF GREATEST IMPORTANCE? |
SUCROSE (GLUCOSE + FRUCTOSE)
LACTOSE (GLUCOSE + GALACTOSE)
MALTOSE (GLUCOSE + GLUCOSE) |
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SHORT CHAINS OF THREE OR MORE MONOSACCHARIDES |
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
GENERALLY A CHAIN OF 10 OR 20 MONOSACCHARIDES |
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LONG CHAINS OF THREE OR MORE MONOSACCHARIDES (UP TO THOUSANDS OF MONOSACCHARIDES LONG) |
POLYSACCHARIDES
GENERALLY A CHAIN OF 50 OR MORE MONOSACCHARIDES |
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THREE POLYSACCHARIDES OF INTEREST TO HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY--ALL COMPOSED SOLELY OF GLUCOSE. |
GLYCOGEN
STARCH
CELLULOSE |
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AN ENERGY-STORAGE POLYSACCHARIDE MADE BY CELLS OF THE LIVER, MUSCLES, BRAIN, UTERUS, AND VAGINA. |
GLYCOGEN
THIS IS THE ONLY POLYSACCHARIDE FOUND IN HUMAN TISSUE.
glyco = sugar; gen = producing |
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THE CORRESPONDING ENERGY-STORAGE POLYSACCHARIDE OF PLANTS. |
STARCH |
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A STRUCTURAL POLYSACCHARIDE THAT GIVES STRENGTH TO THE CELL WALLS OF PLANTS. |
CELLULOSE
THE MOST ABUNDANT ORGANIC COMPOUND ON EARTH AND IT IS A COMMON COMPONENT OF THE DIETS OF HUMANS AND OTHER ANIMALS--YET WE HAVE NO ENZYMES TO DIGEST IT AND THUS DERIVE NO ENERGY OR NUTRITION FROM IT. IMPORTANT DIETARY FIBER. |
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WHAT ARE, ABOVE ALL, A SOURCE OF ENERGY THAT CAN BE QUICKLY MOBILIZED. |
CARBOHYDRATES |
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ALL DIGESTED CARBOHYDRATE IS ULTIMATELY CONVERTED TO ________________. |
GLUCOSE |
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GLUCOSE IS OXIDIZED TO MAKE ________ |
ATP, A HIGH-ENERGY COMPOUND |
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CARBOHYDRATES ARE OFTEN ___________ WITH (COVALENTLY BOUND TO) PROTEINS AND LIPIDS. |
CONJUGATED
con = together; jug = join |
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HOW ARE GLYCOLIPIDS AND GLYCOPROTEINS ARE FORMED? |
MANY OF THE LIPID AND PROTEIN MOLECULES AT THE EXTERNAL SURFACE OF THE CELL MEMBRANE HAVE CHAINS OF UP TO 12 SUGARS ATTACHED TO THEM, THUS FORMING GLYCOLIPIDS AND GLYCOPROTEINS. |
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MACROMOLECULES IN WHICH THE CARBOHYDRATE COMPONENT IS DOMINANT AND A PEPTIDE OR PROTEIN FORMS A SMALLER COMPONENT. |
PROTEOGLYCANS |
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HOW SHOULD WE REFER TO EACH CHEMICALLY DIFFERENT COMPONENT OF CONJUGATED MACROMOLECULES? |
moiety
PROTEOGLYCANS HAVE A PROTEIN MOIETY AND A CARBOHYDRATE MOIETY. |
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A HYDROPHOBIC ORGANIC MOLECULE, USUALLY COMPOSED ONLY OF CARBON, HYDROGEN, AND OXYGEN, WITH A HIGH RATIO OF HYDROGEN TO OXYGEN. |
LIPID |
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WHY DO LIPIDS HAVE MORE CALORIES PER GRAM? |
BECAUSE THEY ARE LESS OXIDIZED THAN CARBOHYDRATES. |
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THE FIVE PRIMARY TYPES OF LIPIDS IN HUMANS |
FATTY ACIDS
TRIGLYCERIDES
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
EICOSANOIDS
STEROIDS |
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A CHAIN OF USUALLY 4 TO 24 CARBON ATOMS WITH A CARBOXYL GROUP AT ONE END AND A METHYL GROUP AT THE OTHER |
FATTY ACID |
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FATTY ACIDS ARE USUALLY CLASSIFIED AS |
SATURATED
OR
UNSATURATED |
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___________HAS AS MUCH HYDROGEN AS IT CAN CARRY. NO MORE COULD BE ADDED WITHOUT EXCEEDING FOUR COVALENT BONDS PER CARBON ATOM. |
SATURATED FATTY ACIDS |
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WHY ARE UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS "UNSATURATED?" |
BECAUSE SOME CARBON ATOMS ARE JOINED BY DOUBLE COVALENT BONDS. EACH OF THESE COULD POTENTIALLY SHARE ONE PAIR OF ELECTRONS WITH ANOTHER HYDROGEN ATOM INSTEAD OF THE ADJACENT CARBON, SO HYDROGEN COULD BE ADDED TO THIS MOLECULE. |
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THOSE FATTY ACIDS WITH MANY C=C BONDS. |
POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS |
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FATTY ACIDS THAT MUST BE OBTAINED FROM THE DIET BECAUSE WE CANNOT SYNTHESIZE THEM. |
ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS |
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A MOLECULE CONSISTING OF THREE-CARBON ALCOHOL CALLED GLYCEROL LINKED TO THREE FATTY ACIDS. |
TRIGLYCERIDES
ALSO KNOWN AS TRIACYLGLYCEROLS |
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EACH BOND BETWEEN A FATTY ACID AND GLYCEROL IS FORMED BY _______________. |
DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS |
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WHEN IS A FATTY ACID NO LONGER AN ACID. |
WHEN IT IS JOINED WITH A GLYCEROL, A FATTY ACID CAN NO LONGER DONATE A PROTON TO A SOLUTION AND IS THEREFORE NO LONGER AN ACID. THIS IS WHY A TRIGLYCERIDES ARE CALLED NEUTRAL FATS |
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TRIGLYCERIDES THAT ARE LIQUID AT ROOM TEMPERATURE. |
OILS
HOWEVER, THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A FAT AND AN OIL IS FAIRLY ARBITRARY. |
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__________ IS A NATURAL PRODUCT OF THE BODY AND IS NECESSARY FOR HUMAN HEALTH. IN ADDITION TO BEING THE PRECURSOR OF OTHER STEROIDS, IT IS AN IMPORTANT COMPONENT OF CELL MEMBRANES AND IS REQUIRED FOR PROPER NERVOUS SYSTEM FUNCTION. |
CHOLESTEROL |
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PRIMARILY, WHERE DOES OUR BODY INTERNALLY SYNTHESIZE CHOLESTEROL? |
PRIMARILY BY THE LIVER (85%)
THE OTHER 15% COMES FROM OUR DIET. |
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STEROIDS THAT AID IN FAT DIGESTION AND NUTRIENT ABSORPTION |
LIPID FUNCTIONS OF BILE ACIDS |
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COMPONENT OF CELL MEMBRANES; PRECURSOR OF OTHER STEROIDS |
LIPID FUNCTION OF CHOLESTEROL |
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CHEMICAL MESSENGERS BETWEEN CELLS |
LIPID FUNCTION OF EICOSANOIDS
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INVOLVED IN A VARIETY OF FUNCTIONS INCLUDING BLOOD CLOTTING, WOUND HEALING, VISION, AND CALCIUM ABSORPTION. |
LIPID FUNCTION OF FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS (A,D,E, and K). |
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PRECURSOR OF TRIGLYCERIDES; SOURCE OF ENERGY |
LIPID FUNCTION OF FATTY ACIDS |
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MAJOR COMPONENT OF CELL MEMBRANES; AID IN FAT DIGESTION |
LIPID FUNCTION OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS |
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CHEMICAL MESSENGERS BETWEEN CELLS |
LIPID FUNCTION OF STEROID HORMONES |
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ENERGY STORAGE; THERMAL INSULATION; FILLING SPACE; BINDING ORGANS TOGETHER; CUSHIONING ORGANS |
LIPID FUNCTIONS OF TRIGLYCERIDES. |
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GLUCOSE (BLOOD SUGAR--ENERGY SOURCE FOR MOST CELLS
GALACTOSE (CONVERTED TO GLUCOSE AND METABOLIZED)
FRUCTOSE (FRUIT SUGAR--CONVERTED TO GLUCOSE AND METABOLIZED) |
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES CALLED MONOSACCHARIDES |
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SUCROSE (CANE SUGAR--DIGESTED TO GLUCOSE AND FRUCTOSE)
LACTOSE (MILK SUGAR--DIGESTED TO GLUCOSE AND GALACTOSE; IMPORTANT IN INFANT NUTITION)
MALTOSE (MALT SUGAR--PRODUCT OF STARCH DIGESTION, FURTHER DIGESTED TO GLUCOSE) |
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES CALLED DISACCHARIDES |
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CELLULOSE (STUCTURAL POLYSACCHARIDE OF PLANTS)
STARCH (ENERGY STORAGE IN PLANT CELLS)
GLYCOGEN (ENERGY STORAGE IN ANIMAL CELLS--LIVER, MUSCLE, BRAIN, UTERUS, VAGINA) |
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES CALLED POLYSACCHARIDES |
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GLYCOPROTEIN (COMPONENT OF THE CELL SURFACE COAT AND MUCUS, AMONG OTHER ROLES GLYCOLIPID (COMPONENT OF THE CELL SURFACE COAT) PROTEOGLYCAN (CELL ADHESION; LUBRICATION; SUPPORTIVE FILLER OF SOME TISSUES AND ORGANS. |
FUNCTIONS OF THE CARBOHYDRATE CALLED CONJUGATED CARBOHYDRATES.
REFER TO EACH CHEMICALLY DIFFERENT COMPONENT AS A moiety |
|
A POLYMER OF AMINO ACIDS.
ALSO, THE MOST VERSATILE MOLECULE IN THE BODY. |
PROTEIN
|
|
DESCRIBE AN AMINO ACID |
AN AMINO ACID HAS A CENTRAL CARBON ATOM WITH AN AMINO (-NH2) AND A CARBOXYL (-COOH) GROUP BOUND TO IT. |
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THE 20 AMINO ACIDS USED TO MAKE PROTEINS ARE IDENTICAL EXCEPT FOR A THIRD FUNCTIONAL GROUP CALLED THE _____________ |
radical (R group) |
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SOME RADICALS ARE ________ AND SOME ARE ___________ |
HYDROPHILIC
HYDROPHOBIC |
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WHAT ARE THE 20 AMINO ACIDS INVOLVED IN PROTEINS? |
ALANINE (Ala) LEUCINE (Leu) ARGININE (Arg) LYSINE (Lys) APARAGINE (Asn) METHIONINE (Met) ASPARTIC ACID (Asp) PHENYLALANINE (Phe) CYSTEINE (Cys) PROLINE (Pro) GLUTAMINE (Gln) SERINE (Ser) GLUTAMIC ACID (Glu) THREONINE (Thr) GLYCINE (Gly) TRYPTOPHAN (Trp) HISTIDINE (His) TYROSINE (Tyr) ISOLEUCINE (Ile) VALINE (Val) |
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ANY MOLECULE COMPOSED OF TWO OR MORE AMINO ACIDS JOINED BY PEPTIDE BONDS |
PEPTIDE |
|
DESCRIBE A PEPTIDE BOND |
A PEPTIDE BOND IS FORMED BY DEHYDRATION SYNTHESES AND JOINS THE AMINO GROUP OF ONE AMINO ACID TO THE CARBOXYL GROUP OF THE NEXT |
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PEPTIDES ARE NAMED FOR THE NUMBER OF___________ |
AMINO ACIDS THEY HAVE.
EX: DIPEPTIDES HAVE TWO AND TRIPEPTIDES HAVE THREE. |
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PEPTIDES WITH FEWER THAN 10 OR 15 AMINO ACID CHAINS ARE CALLED______________ |
OLIGOPEPTIDES
oligo = a few |
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PEPTIDES WITH MORE THAN 15 AMINO ACID CHAINS ARE CALLED____________ |
POLYPEPTIDES |
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A POLYPEPTIDE OF 50 AMINO ACIDS OR MORE |
PROTEIN |
|
DESCRIBE THE VARIOUS WEIGHTS OF AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEINS |
A TYPICAL AMINO ACID HAS A MOLECULAR WEIGHT OF ABOUT 80 amu, AND THE MOLECULAR WEIGHTS OF THE SMALLEST PROTEINS ARE AROUND 4,000 TO 8,000 amu. THE AVERAGE PROTEIN WEIGHS IN AT ABOUT 30,000 amu, AND SOME OF THEM HAVE MOLECULAR WEIGHTS IN THE HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS. |
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DESCRIBE THE STRUCTURE OF PROTEIN |
PROTEINS HAVE COMPLEX COILED AND FOLDED STRUCTURES THAT ARE CRITICALLY IMPORTANT TO THE ROLES THEY PLAY. EVEN SLIGHT CHANGES IN THEIR CONFORMATION (three-dimensional shape) CAN DESTROY PROTEIN FUNCTION. PROTEIN MOLECULES HAVE THREE TO FOUR LEVELS OF COMPLEXITY, FROM PRIMARY THROUGH QUATERNARY STRUCTURE. |
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PROTEIN'S SEQUENCE OF AMINO ACIDS, WHICH IS ENCODED IN THE GENES. |
PRIMARY STRUCTURE |
|
IN PROTEINS, A COILED OR FOLDED SHAPE HELD TOGETHER BY HYDROGEN BONDS BETWEEN THE SLIGHTLY NEGATIVE C==O GROUP OF ONE PEPTIDE BOND AND TEH SLIGHTLY POSITIVE N---H GROUP OF ANOTHER ONE SOME DISTANCE AWAY. |
SECONDARY STRUCTURE |
|
WHAT ARE THE MOST COMMON SECONDARY STRUCTURES OF PROTEINS? |
THEY ARE A SPRINGLIKE SHAPE CALLED THE alpha helix AND A PLEATED, RIBBONLIKE SHAPE, THE beta sheet. |
|
Describe a Tertiary structure of proteins |
Tertiary structure is formed by the further bending and folding of proteins into various globular and fibrous shapes. It results from hydrophobic radicals associating with each other and avoiding water, while the hydrophilic radicals are attracted to the surrounding water. Van der Waals forces play a significant role in stabilizing tertiary structure. |
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What is a disulfide bridge? |
Disulfide bridges function to stabilize a protein's tertiary structure. When two amino acids called cysteine (whose radical is ---CH2---SH), align with each other, each can release a hydrogen atom, leaving the sulfur atoms to form a disulfide bridge (---S---S---). Disulfide bridges hold separate polypeptide chains together in such molecules as antibodies and insulin. |
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Describe a Quaternary structure. |
Quaternary structure is the association of two or more polypeptide chains by noncovalent forces such as ionic bonds and hydrophilic-hydrophobic interactions. It occurs in only some proteins. |
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What is one of the most important properties of proteins. |
It is their ability to change conformation (three-dimensional shape), especially tertiary structure. Subtle, reversible changes in conformation are important to processes such as enzyme function, muscle contraction, and the opening and closing of pores in cell membranes.
|
|
What is denaturation? |
a more drastic conformational change in response to conditions such as extreme heat or pH. Denaturation makes a protein unable to perform its normal functions. |
|
Simple definition of Primary structure |
Sequence of amino acids joined by peptide bonds. |
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Simple definition of Secondary structure |
Alpha helix of beta sheet formed by hydrogen bonding |
|
Simple definition of Tertiary structure |
Folding and coiling due to interactions among R groups and between R groups and surrounding water. |
|
Simple definition of Quaternary structure |
Association of two or more polypeptide chains with each other. |
|
Conjugated proteins have a non-amino acid moiety called a ___________ covalently bound to them. |
prosthetic group
moiety is what each chemically different component of a conjugated macromolecule is referred to as. |
|
What are the functions of proteins? |
Sructure Communication Membrane transport Catalysis Recognition and protection Movement Cell adhesion |
|
What is a ligand?
It is part of the communication function of proteins. |
Any hormone or other molecule that reversibly binds to a protein.
Some hormones and other cell-to-cell signals are proteins
|
|
Describe membrane transport of proteins |
Some proteins form channels in cell membranes that govern what passes through the membranes ad when. Others act as carriers tha briefly bind to solute particles and transport them to the other side of the membrane. Among their other roles, such proteins turn nerve and muscle activity on and off. |
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Describe Catalysis of proteins |
Most metabolic pathways or the body are controlled by enzymes, which are globular proteins that function as catalysts. |
|
Describe how proteins function in recognition and protection |
Antibodies and other proteins attack and neutralize organisms that invade the body. Clotting proteins protect the body against blood loss. |
|
Describe how proteins function in the movement of the body. |
Proteins, with their special ability to change shape repeatedly, are the basis for all such movement. Some proteins are called molecular motors (motorproteins) for this reason.
|
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Describe how proteins function in cell adhesion. |
Proteins bind cells to each other, which enables sperm to fertilize eggs, enables immune cells to bind to enemy cancer cells, and keeps tissues from falling apart. |
|
Describe enzymes and what they do. |
Enzymes are proteins that function as biological catalysts. They enable biochemical reactions to occur rapidly at normal body temperatures. They lower the activation energy to oxidize glucose to water and carbon dioxide. |
|
What is a substrate? |
The substance the enzyme acts upon; sometimes refers to the enzyme's action; and adds the suffix -ase. |
|
Describe the three principal steps of an Enzymatic Reaction |
1. A substrate molecule approaches a pocket on the enzyme surface called the active site.
2. The substrate binds to the enzyme, forming an enzyme-substrate complex.
3. The reaction products are released. |
|
Is an enzyme consumed by the raction is catalyzes? |
No
Therefore, one enzyme molecule can consume millions of substrate molecules at an astonishing speed. |
|
What are the factors that change the shape of an enzyme? |
Notably, temperature and pH. These tend to alter or destroy the ability of the enzyme to bind its substrate.
|
|
About two-thirds of human enzymes require a non-protein partner called a ____________ |
Cofactor
Inorganic cofactors include iron, copper, zinc, magnesium, and calcium inos. |
|
Organic cofactors usually derived from niacin, riboflavin, and other water-soluble vitamins. |
Coenzymes
They accept electrons from an enzyme in one metabolic pathway and transfer them to an enzyme in another. |
|
A chain of reactions with each step usually catalyzed by a different enzyme. |
Metobolic Pathways
These have an initial reactant, intermediates and the end product. |
|
Organic compounds with three principal components: a single or double carbon-nitrogen ring called a nitrogenous base, a monosaccharide, and one or more phosphate groups |
Nucleotides |
|
Describe Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
|
The body's most important energy-transfer molecule. It is a nucleotide that briefly stores energy gained from exergonic reactions such as glucose oxidation and releases it within seconds for physiological work such as plymerization reactions, muscle contraction, and pumping ions through cell membranes. |
|
Specialized enzymes that hydrolyze the third phosphate bond, producing adenosine diphosphate (ADP) |
adenosine triphosphatases (ATPases) |
|
Much of the energy for ATP synthesis comes from glucose oxidation. The first stage in glucose oxidation is the reaction pathway known as ___________ |
glycolysis (sugar splitting) |
|
Describe anaerobic fermentation |
What happens to pyruvic acid in glycolysis depends on how much oxygen is available relative to ATP demand. When the demand for ATP outpaces the oxygen supply, excess pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid by a pathway called anaerobic fermentation. |
|
What are the disadvantages of anaerobic fermentation? |
1. it does not extract any more energy from pyruvic acid;
2. the lactic acid it produces is toxic, so most cells can use anaerobic fermentation only as a temporary measure. |
|
What is the only advantage of anaerobic fermentation? |
The only advantage to this pathway is that it enables glycolysis to continue and thus enables a cell to continue producing a small amount of ATP. |
|
Describe aerobic respiration. |
This more efficient pathway happens when there is enough oxygen. This breaks pyruvic acid down to carbon dioxide and water and generates up to 36 more molecules of ATP for each of the original glucose molecules. The reactions of aerobic respiration are carrried out in the cell's mitochondria, so mitochondria are regarded as a cell's principal "ATP factories." |
|
Describe the nucleotide Guanosine triphosphate (GTP) |
A nucleotide involved in energy transfers. In some reactions, it donates phosphate groups to other molecules. For example, it can donate its third phosphate group to ADP to regenerate ATP. |
|
Describe the nucleotide Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) |
It is formed by the removal of both the second and third phosphate groups from ATP. In many cases, when a hormone or other chemical signal ("first messenger") binds to a cell surface, it triggers and internal reaction that converts ATP to cAMP. The cAMP then acts as a "second messenger" to activate metabolic effects within the cell. |
|
Polymers of nucleotides |
Nucleic Acids
The largest nucleic acid is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA); typically 100 million to 1 billion nucleotides long. |
|
Describe deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) |
It is the largest of the nucleic acids. They are typically 100 million to 1 billion nucleotides long. It constitutes our genes, gives instructions for synthesizing all of the body's proteins, and transfers hereditary information from cell to cell when cells divide and from generation to generation when organisms reproduce. |
|
ATP production |
Glycolysis produces pyruvic acid and a net gain of two ATPs. Anaerobic fermentation converts pyretic acid to lactic acid and permits glycolysis to continue producing ATP in the absence of oxygen. Aerobic respiration produces a much greater ATP yield but requires oxygen. |