Western Civilization Exam 1

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Mesopotamia

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Mesopotamia, located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, was where the first cities emerged around 4000 BCE. Cities arose as a result of the need to centralize efforts to build and maintain irrigation canals in the plains surrounding the rivers. The urban centers controlled the farmland surrounding its walls and exercised political and economic control over the surrounding countryside. These cities were actually city-states because of the scope of influence they had. These cities were independent communities that competed for land, resources, and influence.

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Fertile Crescent

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The Fertile Crescent was an area between the Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf in which the earliest civilizations developed. It was known as the Fertile Crescent because it had rich farmland due to climate changes bringing sufficient rain to the area to grow crops. Agriculture was developed in the area during the Neolithic Revolution.

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Neolithic

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Neolithic Revolution began around 10,000-8,000 BCE. People learned to farm and domesticate animals. This occurred as a result of a climate change bringing greater rainfall to the Fertile Crescent. After thousands of years of trial and error, agriculture was eventually developed. Irrigation and the invention of the plow followed. Domestication of sheep occurred around 8500 BCE. All of this created greater hierarchy as an efficient response to the conditions and technologies of the time. The Neolithic Revolution paved the way for the development of civilizations and urban societies by allowing specialization to occur due to crop surpluses.

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Old Kingdom

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3100-2190 BCE. King Menes unites Upper and Lower Egypt. By 2687 BCE a centralized state is evident. Regular flooding of the Nile River ensured rich farmland in the river plains where most people lived. Deserts to the east and west protected from invasion. Diverse population. King’s success dependent upon his fulfillment of religious duties. King is a god in human form. Maat referred to the king remaining in the gods’ favor. Built lavish temples and pyramids.

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Middle Kingdom

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2190-1665 BCE. Regional governors seized control of Egypt following climate change that decreased Nile flood. King Mentuhotep restored central authority. Period of vigorous literature due to restored pride in homeland. Middle Kingdom dissolved following more irregularities in Nile flooding.

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New Kingdom

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1569-1081 BCE. Following an invasion of the Hyksos people (1664 BCE) leaders of Thebes defeated the invaders in 1569 BCE and reunited Egypt under the New Kingdom. Kings were known as pharaohs. Highly diplomatic society in order to decrease risk of further invasion. Did, however use military force to gain access to raw materials and control trade routes. Built magnificent temples and had highly ornate architecture. Akhenaten dabbled in monotheism in 14th century BCE by focusing on sun-god Aten. Carried on extensive wars with Hittite kingdom of Anatolia. Eventually reached truce in 1259 BCE after battle of Kadesh in 1274 BCE. New Kingdom fell apart in 1081 BCE following various disasters and invasions.

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Cuneiform

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Cuneiform- block form of writing originating from Sumeria. Initially had purpose of keeping accounts of trades and such. Good records of such tablets have been found. hundreds of symbols- only very few could read and write

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Ankesenamun

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circa 1300 bce. Egyptian princess who married king tutankhamun. She was 20 years old when king tut died, and thus claimed the throne. Many suitors wanted her hand in marriage so they could claim the throne to Egypt- but she was very smart. Wrote a letter to the Hittites asking for one of their sons to marry, so she’d be married but still have rule over Egypt. Married Hittites 3rd oldest son.

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Persian Wars

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499-479 BCE. Began when the Ionian Greek city-states rebelled against Persian rulers. Athens sent troops to aid the rebels. Rebellion crushed in 494 BCE. King Darius, enraged that the Athenians, supposed allies, vowed revenge. In 490 BCE, Darius sent a fleet to install Hippias as ruler of Athens. The Athenians and Persians met on the plains of Marathon where the Athenians charged in a dead run. The Athenians won a decisive victory in the battle, and the Persians sailed home. Darius’ son Xerxes led an invasion in 480 BCE. 31 city-states united in the Hellenic League to resist the Persians. Sparta led the Hellenic League in battle and held the narrow pass of Thermopylae for several days to allow time for the Greeks to organize. Athens was destroyed by the Persians, but the Athenians had abandoned the city. The Greeks had a decisive naval victory at Salamis, and in 479 BCE they defeated the Persian land forces at Plataea.

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Polis

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Greek city-states originating in the Archaic Age. They were independent communities of citizens inhabiting a city and the countryside around it.

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Sophists

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Controversial teachers in Golden Age Athens that began arriving around 450 BCE. Taught wealthy Athenians the skill of public speaking and clever arguments. Expressed ideas about the nature of human existence and religion that challenged traditional beliefs. Primarily taught whatever ambitious young men needed to learn to gain power in Athens’ radical democracy. Alarmed traditionalists with seductive eloquence and belief in nontraditional views of morality and nature.

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Alexander the Great

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356-323 BCE. Alexander took the Macedonian throne following the assassination of his father. He established monetary economy in Greek banks. He wiped out those who opposed him and conquered Macedonia’s enemies to the north and the west. He then rejoined the southern Greek city-states into a Macedonian-led league. He destroyed Thebes to show the price of disloyalty. Alexander would go on to become one of the greatest military leaders in ancient history. Alexander conquered the Persian Empire and developed new methods to quickly end sieges by breeching city walls. He conquered Egypt and as far east as Bactria. He was unable to conquer India when his troops mutinied. Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE of an illness. His death led to the splitting of his empire and the beginning of the Hellenistic Era.

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Circe

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nymph who at first changes Odysseus’ crew into pigs but upon being outsmarted by Odysseus she fixes them back to humans and asks him to bed (where she tries to deceive him again). After that they are lovers for a year and she helps him reach home

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Ebla

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in modern day Syria, large Mesopotamian city state, 20-30,000 people, very literate, exported luxury goods, crops, sheep, weapons, personal seals, wine, and cooking oil, large connections with other places/ cultures

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Linear B

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used by Mycenaean Greeks, combination of syllabic and ideograms (pictures like hieroglyphics), pictures allowed for more availability- more literacy

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penis

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in the vagina

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"true alphabet"

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Greek alphabet, inspired by phoenician alphabet (no vowels), originally developed from ideograms, vowels added because they are essential to dactylic hexameter

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dactylic hexameter

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characteristic of epic poems, 6 measures made up of dactyls (alternation of long and short syllables)

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Homer

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c. 750 BCE, epic poetry- Iliad and Odyssey, beginning of Greek lit, popularity spanned 500 years after his death, blind, Homeric epic reflects mix of ideas from Mycenaean civilization, "dark ages", and contemporary times (8th century BCE- technology such as bow and arrows)

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The Iliad and The Odyssey

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written by homer in the 8th century BCE, reflects mix of ideas from Mycenaean civilization, "dark ages", and contemporary times (8th century BCE- technology such as bow and arrows), characteristics: invocation (asking for divine intervention/ inspiration), in medias res (story starts in the middle of a larger story), epithets, repetition of passages, catalogs, epic boast (list of accomplishments), dactylic hexameter

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oral epic

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characteristics: invocation (asking for divine intervention/ inspiration), in medias res (story starts in the middle of a larger story), epithets, repetition of passages, catalogs, epic boast (list of accomplishments), dactylic hexameter

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invocation

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ask for divine assistance/ inspiration
ex: Odysseus with Athena

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epic boast

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list of accomplishments, demonstrates strengths, shows who you are- like business card/ resume, not hubris

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oikos

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reference to house and household sense of a family unit, gender specific spaces (gynaikon= women, andron= men), ex: the hearth (symbol of hospility and sacred duty to gods), feasting, entertaining guests, the bedroom (symbolic of marital sexual relations, continuation of lineage, place for intimate knowledge)

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Polyphemus

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cyclops from Homer's the Odyssey and Greek mythology, son of Poseidon

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Panhellenism

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"all greek", union of greek people, shown in Olympic games (776 BCE- 261 CE) and Persian Wars (499-479 BCE) with the Hellenic league (led mostly by Sparta) and Delian (Athens) and Peloponnesian (Sparta) leagues

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Athens, Sparta

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Persian Wars: Delian League (Athens), Peloponnesian League (Sparta), Sparta: 7:1 ratio of healots to Spartan= slave revolts, 2 kings (monarchy), and Council of Elders (oligarchy)--- Athens: strong aristocracy, democracy because of wider level of citizenship/ participation

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Homer

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c. 750 BCE, epic poetry- Iliad and Odyssey, beginning of Greek lit, popularity spanned 500 years after his death, blind, Homeric epic reflects mix of ideas from Mycenaean civilization, "dark ages", and contemporary times (8th century BCE- technology such as bow and arrows)

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The Iliad and The Odyssey

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written by homer in the 8th century BCE, reflects mix of ideas from Mycenaean civilization, "dark ages", and contemporary times (8th century BCE- technology such as bow and arrows), characteristics: invocation (asking for divine intervention/ inspiration), in medias res (story starts in the middle of a larger story), epithets, repetition of passages, catalogs, epic boast (list of accomplishments), dactylic hexameter

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oral epic

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characteristics: invocation (asking for divine intervention/ inspiration), in medias res (story starts in the middle of a larger story), epithets, repetition of passages, catalogs, epic boast (list of accomplishments), dactylic hexameter

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invocation

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ask for divine assistance/ inspiration
ex: "sing to me o muse of the man" beginning of Odyssey, "arma virumque"- "I sing arms and the man" beginning of the Aeneid

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epic boast

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list of accomplishments, demonstrates strengths, shows who you are- like business card/ resume, not hubris

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oikos

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reference to house and household sense of a family unit, gender specific spaces (gynaikon= women, andron= men), ex: the hearth (symbol of hospility and sacred duty to gods), feasting, entertaining guests, the bedroom (symbolic of marital sexual relations, continuation of lineage, place for intimate knowledge)

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Polyphemus

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cyclops from Homer's the Odyssey and Greek mythology, son of Poseidon

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Panhellenism

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"all greek", union of greek people, shown in Olympic games (776 BCE- 261 CE) and Persian Wars (499-479 BCE) with the Hellenic league (led mostly by Sparta) and Delian (Athens) and Peloponnesian (Sparta) leagues

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Athens, Sparta

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Persian Wars: Delian League (Athens), Peloponnesian League (Sparta), Sparta: 7:1 ratio of healots to Spartan= slave revolts, 2 kings (monarchy), and Council of Elders (oligarchy)--- Athens: strong aristocracy, democracy because of wider level of citizenship/ participation

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Oracle at Delphi

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prophecy, dedicated to Apollo, women told prophesies

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Peloponnesian Wars

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The Peloponnesian War, 431–404 b.c.e.
Athenian aggression against Spartan allies Corinth and Megara brought an end to a 446 b.c.e. treaty between the two city-states and triggered the Peloponnesian War. When Sparta demanded that Athens ease restrictions on its allies, the Athenian assembly (under the leadership of Pericles) refused to compromise. The Spartans launched the first attack by invading Athenian territory. Pericles devised a strategy of naval raids on Spartan territory and avoided land battles with Sparta’s superior infantry. This strategy might have worked if Pericles had not died in 429 b.c.e., when a plague struck Athens from 430–426 b.c.e. Without strong leadership, the Athenians embarked on risky and ultimately disastrous military campaigns, such as the invasion of Sicily in which Athens lost much of its naval fleet. Meanwhile, Sparta devastated the countryside with constant raids. With financial aid from its former enemy—Persia—Sparta built a strong navy that finally forced Athens to surrender in 404 b.c.e.

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Protagoras

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sophists (philosophical teacher), "man is the measure of all things", believed radical subjectivism (subjective experience)

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Thrasymachus

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Character in Plato's Book I of The Republic, sophist in ancient Greece, justice is that which is "to the advantage of" the stronger

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Ring of Gyges

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in Book II of Plato's republic, makes you invisible, Question: How would you behave if you possessed a ring which could make you invisible?

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Callicles

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In Plato's Gorgias, morally appropriate to define justice as that which is in the interest of the stronger

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Melos

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Greek island in the Aegean Sea, during Peloponnesian War island was neutral but Athenians offered them a chance to be conquered or join the Athenians, they refused and were conquered and the Athenians killed all of their men and sold their women to slavery

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Xenophon

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historian, wrote a description of Socrates' trial after the event, he was abroad at the time and heard it 2nd hand, it was not necessarily accurate

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Akrasia

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state of acting against one's better judgement, Socrates thought Akrasia was an illogical moral concept, "no one willingly goes towards the bad"- Socrates, Aristotle took empirical approach saying that we intuitively believe in Akrasia- it's a matter of one's opinion

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Archytas

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Ancient Greek astronomer/ philosopher, friend of Plato, founder of mathematical mechanics, attended Pythagorean school

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Plato

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428- 348 BCE, Classical Greek philosopher, founded The Academy in Athens, Socrates was mentor, Aristotle was student, wrote The Republic and Socrates' trial, allegory of the cave in The Republic, believe in "the form" (the ideal, the truth in one's head not one's senses), very much influenced by Socrates

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Aristotle

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384- 322 BCE, Greek philosopher, student of Plato, teacher to Alexander the Great, also believed in "the form"
4 causes (way to define "the form"):
1) material (what is it made of?)
2) formal (distinguishing features)
3) efficient (person who made it)
4) final (purpose)
believed in fire, earth, air, water, and aither (unknowable/ beyond, but has distinct place)

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Aristarchus

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310-230 BCE, Greek astronomer and mathematician, first to present idea of heliocentric model of universe, ideas rejected in favor of Aristotle and Ptolemy's geocentric model of universe, idea later adopted by Copernicus, Kepler, and Newton

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Socrates

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469-399 BCE, believed in desire for good in all, no evil- just moral faults, evil= ignorance, different from Sophists: believed in absolutes, trial, Plato was pupil

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ruler cults

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worshiped foreign rulers as Gods, ex: Antiochus III of Seleucid dynasty, Seleucids, and Ptolemics, creation of temples and orders of priests who prayed to the living and dead members of the royal family

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retrograde motion

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idea that the planets sometimes move backwards or in the opposite direction,did not explain stars and their brighter and dimmer appearances at different times, trying to make sense of geocentrism, epicycles and deferents

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Julian Laws

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Octavian Caesar (Augustus) who came to power in 27 BCE, tried to mediate and revive Rome's power by using Julian laws on marriage and adultery in18 and 9 BCE which increased the punishment for acts against marriage, reestablishing Roman values

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Augustus/Octavian

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The adopted grand nephew of Julius Caesar. Together with Marc Antony and Marcus Lepidus ruled Rome as part of the second triumvirate. Reestablishes order after Antony's suicide and is given the honorific title "Augustus" by the senate. Was the first emperor of the roman empire and ruled from 27 BCE until his death in 14 CE. Was married to Livia Drusilla who was said to have marched into battle to defend Rome against the traditionalist opponents of Octavian's. Octavian's rule initiated a period of peace named the "Pax Romana" by historians.

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Julius Caesar

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Formed the first triumvirate with Marcus Crassus and Pompey Magnus. Conquered Gaul. Caesar married his daughter Julia to Pompey to secure political ties with him. Upon Julia's death in childbirth, Caesar no longer felt obligated to maintain friendly ties with Pompey and declared a civil war, marching on Rome to rid Pompey of the city and uttering his famous line "The Die is Cast". Starts a dictatorship in 48 BCE with civil war. Is murdered on the senate floor in 44 BCE by being stabbed multiple times

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Oppian Laws

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started in 215 BCE during Punic Wars, a series of sumptuary laws that restricted a woman's wealth and namely her display of it. Particularly, it forbid women from wearing many multicolored garments, particularly purple and from using animal drawn vehicles in certain areas of town. This was meant to lower tensions between the upper and lower classes. By 195 BCE the economy had reversed and there was a call for the repeal of the laws. The upperclass women marched on the senate and banged on the doors, making their voices heard.

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Cornelia

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Daughter of Scipio Africanus (who defeated Hannibal before he was allowed to enter the Italian peninsula). Married Tiberius Gracchus and mothered the brothers Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus who went on to defy the political institutions of Rome. After husband died, she was courted by Ptolemy the VIII of Egypt but refused to marry him on the pretense that she wanted to raise her two children. Was greatly admired in Roman society for being a univira (only married once). Was extremely humble and was said to have said "my sons are my jewels".

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Patria Potestas

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describes the power that the man (or head) of household had over the life and death of all those in the household, including the women, children, and slaves. In manus marriages, a woman was passed from the patria potestas of her father to that of her husband. In non-manus marriages, a woman remained under the patria potestas of her father until his death. Because of this, non-manus marriages became very common as once the father died, the woman was basically free. Sometimes brothers would assume guardianship but it was mostly in title and was rarely acted on.

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Vestal Virgins

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The women that guarded the eternal flame in Rome. It was believed that if the flame went out, Rome would crumble. They represented the goddess Vesta (goddess of the hearth). The punishment for allowing the flame to go out was death by being buried alive.

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Euergetism

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A social practice that appeared in the Hellenistic world which was a moral obligation for wealthy people, especially when seeking high political offices such as consul. They would contribute money towards public works such as roads or buildings.

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Constitutio Antoniniana

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"Constitution of Antoninus"; an edict issued in 212 AD by Roman Emperor Caracalla declaring that all free men in the Roman Empire were to be given full Roman citizenship and all free women in Empire were given the same rights as Roman women were.

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equant

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mathematical concept developed by Claudius Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD to account for the observed motion of heavenly bodies

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epicycle and deferent

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In the Ptolemaic system of astronomy, the epicycle (literally: on the circle in Greek) was a geometric model used to explain the variations in speed and direction of the apparent motion of the Moon, Sun, and planets.In the Ptolemaic system, the planets are assumed to move in a small circle called an epicycle, which in turn moves along a larger circle called a deferent. Both circles rotate eastward and are roughly parallel to the plane of the Sun's orbit (ecliptic). it explained the retrograde motion of the five planets known at the time.

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aither

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Aristotle,
believed in fire, earth, air, water, and aither (unknowable/ beyond, but has distinct place)

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four elements

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Plato's construction of the universe, describes 4 types of matter/ types of atoms:
1) fire- tetrahedron (moves up to a point)
2) earth- cube (solid, foundation, build to make surfaces)
3) air- octahedron (loose, slippery)
4) water- isohedron (20 sides, almost like a sphere, ability to move easily)

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Latins

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The Latins were an ancient Italic people of the Latium region in central Italy, (Latium Vetus - Old Latium). Although they lived in independent city-states, the Latins had a common language (Latin), common religious beliefs, and a close sense of kinship, expressed in the myth that they were all descendants of Latinus. Latinus was worshiped on Mons Albanus (Monte Cavo) during an annual festival that was attended by all Latins, including those from Rome, one of the Latin states. The Latin cities extended common rights of residence and trade to one another. Rome's territorial ambitions united the rest of the Latins against it in 341 BC, but the final victory was on Rome's side in 338 BC. Consequently, some of the Latin states were incorporated within the Roman state, and their inhabitants were given full Roman citizenship. Others became Roman allies and enjoyed certain privileges.

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Sabine Women

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1. Romulus asks neighboring peoples to give their daughters to Romans. He is denied and tricks the Sabine women into coming to festival and they are raped and made into wives. If they become faithful Roman wives they will share in citizenship and possessions. The Sabine women accept and when their husbands and brothers march into Rome to take them back, the Sabine women march into the battle to stop them. Eventually a treaty is drawn between the Romans and the Sabines and they are incorporated into Roman society.

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Romance language

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Come from latin (latin-based). Spanish, French, Italian, Catalan, Portuguese, Romanian.

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Verism

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Shown in Roman sculptures. Shows imperfections of the subject including warts and wrinkles. Said to show accomplishment in a persons life by showing the hardships that they had suffered. Very different from Greek head sculptures which were idealized like the gods. The Romans did however continue to idealize the shape of body sculpture which often resulted in an "old person" head and a "young person" body.

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Arma Virumque

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"I sing arms and the man..." From the Aeneid. Opening to the epic poem, an invocation to the muse.

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Livius Andronicus

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is regarded as the father of Roman drama and epic poetry and is most famous for his Latin translation of Homer’s Odyssey. In antiquity, Varro, Cicero, and Horace all considered Livius as the originator of Latin literature. He is the earliest Roman poet whose name is known

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Carthage, 146 BCE

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With the destruction of Carthage in 146 BCE, Rome becomes major power of Mediterranean. Same year as Corinth collapses. Both empires become part of Rome During the series of Macedonian wars when Rome conquers Greece. The struggle between Carthage and Rome was prophesized by Queen Dido in the Aeneid.

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Macedonian Wars

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215-148 B.C. Rome conquers Greece.
146 B.C. – Roman destruction of Corinth and Carthage
• Both empires became part of Rome

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Romulus

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Rome founded by Romulus: c. 753 B.C. Nearly four centuries after Aeneis lifetime.

appearing in Roman mythology as the twin sons of the Vestal Virgin Rhea Silvia, fathered by the god of war, Mars. According to the tradition recorded as history by Plutarch and Livy, Romulus served as the first King of Rome.

Romulus slew Remus with a shovel over a dispute about which one of the two brothers had the support of the local deities to rule the new city and give it his name. The name they gave the city was Rome. Supposedly, Romulus had stood on one hill and Remus another, and a circle of birds flew over Romulus, signifying that he should be king. After founding Rome, Romulus not only created the Roman Legions and the Roman Senate, but also added citizens to his new city by abducting the women of the neighboring Sabine tribes, which resulted in the mixture of the Sabines and Romans into one people. Romulus would become ancient Rome's greatest conqueror, adding large amounts of territory and people to the dominion of Rome.

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ideal forms

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the ideal, the truth in one's head not one's senses, Plato's idea very much influenced by Socrates
ex: coffee cup
inspired Aristotle's 4 causes, apparent in Plato's The Republic

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metaphor of the cave

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Plato's The Republic, people chained in cave looking at shadows at back of cave caused by fire, people represent all of humanity, when leaving cave its hard to see and a slow adjustment- shatters world view, when going back to cave others don't believe you calling you crazy- can't go back to cave society, philosophy: senses are misleading, use brain and trust reasoning

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Hellenistic Period

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Period spans from death of Alexander the Great (323 BCE) to Death of Cleopatra VII (30 BCE), hellenes= "greek", more multicultural/ cosmopolitan, rule over large territory, kings build common works to establish power and benefit city (ex: Athens), gap between sexes narrow, new developments in religion (immigrant gods, cult religion), emphasis on practical application of philosophy

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The Ptolemies

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Greek royal family ruling in Egypt during the Hellenistic period, rule lasted nearly 300 years, ruler cults for them, Cleopatra VII part of family

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Eudoxus

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Greek astronomer and mathematician, student of Plato, views known because of Aristotle, model of planetary motion,

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Alexandria

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City in Egypt, founded by Alexander the Great c. 331 BCE, seaport/ trade, Egypt's capital for nearly 1000 years, Great Library- catalogues of works, Museion (learning institution)

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atomism and plenism

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atomism: natural philosophy developed by Leucippus and his student Democritus in the fifth century BC, natural world consists of two fundamental and opposite, indivisible bodies - atoms (atomos) and void, all matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms, laid the foundation for the Epicurian view of the universe

plenism: Theory proposed by Aristotle, belief that no vacuum can exist, widely excepted for a long time

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Aeneas

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The main character in the Aeneid. Aeneas is the leader of the Dardanians, the son of Venus, and the principle lieutenant of Hector. It is he who leads the remaining people of Troy from the ruined city. His wife is killed during their escape and he is visited by her shade who tells him that he will go on to found a great empire and marry a new woman in a place called Latium. After suffering hardships on the Mediterranean Sea, he eventually lands in Carthage where he meets Queen Dido. The two immediately fall in love after Venus sends Cupid to force love upon Dido. Jupiter sees this and gets upset. He sends Mercury down to inspire Aeneas by reminding of his prophecy. Aeneas decides to leave to fulfill his destiny and go to Italy where his descendants are said to found the greatest empire of the world (Rome). After leaving Dido, she commits suicide and curses the Romans, saying that Rome and Carthage would forever be in struggle with one another. Ancestor of Remus and Romulus.

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Cult of Isis

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Upon conquering Egypt, Greece incorporated many Egyptian gods into their own religious beliefs. They "hellenized" many, such as Isis and formed cults around such deities.

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"saving the appearances"

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Says that explanations for the way things appear aren't necessarily true, such as explanations regarding the geocentric theory (retrograde motion, eudoxus' solution, and empirical problems with eudoxus' nested concentric spheres)