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64 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Authoritarian
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parents impose rules and expect obedience (too hard/"because I said so")
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Permissive
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submit to children's desires, make few demands, and enforce little punishment (too soft)
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Authoritative
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both demanding and responsive, set rules but explain reasons and encourage open discussion (just right)
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Pupil
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adjustable opening in the center of the eye
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Iris
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the colored portion of the eye which is a ring of muscle that controls the size of the pupil
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Lens
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the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
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Retina
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light-sensitve inner surface of the eye; contains the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
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Perception
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the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
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Sensation
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the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
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Unconditional Response (UR)
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in classical conditioning the naturally occurring response to the unconditional stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth
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Unconditional Stimulus (US)
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in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically-triggers a response
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Conditioned Response (CR)
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in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
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in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response
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Shaping
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a conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide actions toward a desired behavior
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Modeling
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the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
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Spontaneous Recovery
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the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
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Gestalt
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an organized whole (our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes)
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Figure Ground
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the organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)
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Binocular Cues
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depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes (such as retinal disparity)
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Monocular Cues
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depth cues available to either eye alone (such as interposition and linear perspective)
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Depth Perception
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the ability to see objects in three dimensions although images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
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Schema
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a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
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Extinction
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the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced
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Positive Reinforcement
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increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli (any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response)
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Negative Reinforcement
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increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli (any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens that response) NOT A PUNISHMENT
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Secondary Reinforcer
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a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer
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Intrinsic Motivation
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a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
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Extrinsic Motivation
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a desire to perform a behavior to receive a promised reward or avoid threatened punishment
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Retinal Disparity
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a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes (the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object)
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Fixed-ratio Schedule
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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
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Variable-ratio Schedule
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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
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Fixed-interval Schedule
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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
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Variable-interval Schedule
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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
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Zygote
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the fertilized egg; it enters a two week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo
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Embryo
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the developing human organism from about two weeks after fertilization through the second month
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Fetus
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the developing human organism from nine weeks after conception to birth
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Hermann Ebbinghaus
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a scientist who studied the "forgetting curve"; after learning lists of nonsense syllables, he studied how much he retained and found that memory for novel information fades quickly, then levels out
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Sensory Memory
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the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
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Short-term Memory
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activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten (like remembering a phone number just until you dial it)
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Long-term Memory
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the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system (includes knowledge, skills, and experiences)
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Critical Period
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an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development
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Conservation
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the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in forms of objects (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning)
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Effortful Processing
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encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
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Automatic Processing
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unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, an frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
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Teratogens
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agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
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Priming
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the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
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Punishment
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an event that decreases the behavior that it follows
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Sensorimotor Stage
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in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about two years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
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Pre-operational Stage
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in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 years of age) during which as child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
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Concrete Operational Stage
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in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
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Formal Operational Stage
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in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
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Infantile Amnesia
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the implicit reactions and skills we learned during infancy reach far into our future, yet as adults we recall nothing of our first three years
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Priming
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the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
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Déja vu
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that eerie sense that you have experienced something before; cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
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Mood-congruent Memory
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the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
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Absent-mindedness
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inattention to details leads to encoding failure
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Transience
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storage decay over time
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Blocking
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inaccessibility of stored information
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Misattribution
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confusing the source of information
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Suggestibility
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the lingering effects of misinformation
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Bias
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belief-colored recollections
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Persistence
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unwanted memories
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Skinner Box
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inside the box, the rat presses a bar for a food reward. Outside, a measuring device records the animal's accumulated responses
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Operant Chamber
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in operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking
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