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111 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Freud
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• Father of psychoanalysis
-Id, ego, superego |
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Id
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seeks immediate gratification; operates on the pleasure principle.
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Ego
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executive, conscious portion of personality. It attempts to balance demands of the id and superego; operates on the reality principle.
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Superego
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contains moral and idealized standards of behavior (cultural specific); morality principle.
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Defense Mechanisms
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• Processes that distort reality and protect us from anxiety.
-e.g. repressed memories |
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Repression
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thought to be the most common defense mechanism. Events are unknowingly placed into the unconscious.
-Automatic; can’t cause anxiety because we aren’t aware of them. |
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Denial
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Refusal to accept reality.
-“ I didn’t steal, I just borrowed it.” |
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Projection
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Attributing unacceptable thoughts/desires to others.
-“You’re a thief!” OR “You’re cheating on me!” |
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Rationalization
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Creating (bogus) justifications for your actions.
-“It’s not bad to shoplift because companies make enough money anyway.” |
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Psychosexual Stage Theory
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Five stages…three most important are
1.Oral 2.Anal 3.Phallic • Appropriate level of stimulation needed at each stage; too much or too little leads to fixation. |
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Oral
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1st stage of psychosexual stage theory
-mouth is center of fixation -Birth-1.5 years; involves biting, chewing, sucking. |
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Anal
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2nd stage of psychosexual stage theory
-anus is center of fixation -1.5-3 years; activity centers around toilet training. |
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Phallic
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3rd stage of psychosexual stage theory
-genitals fixated upon -3-6 years; genital stimulation, sexual and moral dev. |
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Fixations
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• When a portion of energy remains in an earlier stage of development.
-Involves an exaggerated concern with X. |
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Oral Fixation
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Smoking, gum chewing, drinking.
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Anal Fixation
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(retentive or expulsive)-determined by reaction to toilet training; either overly tidy or overly messy
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Phallic Fixation
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sexual deviance
-Oedipus or Electra complex occurs here. |
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Psychosexual Criticisms
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• Difficult to test scientifically.
-Much of it is not testable or falsifiable. • Little evidence that proposed stages actually exist. • Overly focused on sexual conflicts. -Oedipus conflict seen as crucial for male dev. • Overly focused on male development; contains sexist elements (e.g. penis envy) |
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Humanists
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-Emphasized free will.
-Rejected deterministic view of behaviorism and psychoanalysis. -Focused on positive causes of personality development (personal growth) |
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Abraham Maslow
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-father of humanism; studied healthy people to observe their development.
• Emphasized reaching one’s full potential. • Proposed a hierarchy of needs. -Begins with basic needs and ascends to “self-actualization” • Self-actualization: the fullest realization of one’s potential; being all that you can be. -Accept themselves, others and the world as they are; have a need for privacy and only a few close friends. Have “peak experiences” |
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Carl Rogers
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-humanist
• Also emphasized self-actualization • Focused on our need for positive regard • Coined “unconditional positive regard” -Acceptance or approval without conditions; important that parents provide this to children. • Developed client-centered therapy (covered in chapter 10) • Lack of unconditional positive regard results in conditions of worth. -Acceptance/approval only given for certain behaviors and attitudes. • Teaches us what others want us to be. -Ideal self versus real self. • Anxiety/defensiveness (and other issues) arise from mismatches between the ideal self and real self. |
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Trait Theories
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• Propose that personality can be defined by a (small) number of traits or dimensions.
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Traits
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-internally based, relatively stable aspects of an individual’s personality.
• Too few traits = you can’t adequately explain personality. • Too many traits = they start to overlap. |
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The Big Five (McRae & Costa)
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• Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.
• Remember OCEAN • Supported across genders, cultures, and languages. • Approximately 50% heritable. |
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Projective Tests
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A series of images; test takers create a description or story for each. Mostly used in clinical practice.
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Personality Inventories MMPI-2
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• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (second edition)
• Most widely used test in the world • 567 simple statements -Ex: “ I feel like breaking things” • Response is: true, false, or cant say • Measures abnormal personality; includes scaled for 10 different disorders (schizophrenia/ depression). |
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Personality Inventories: NFC
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• Need for cognition (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982).
-The extent to which individuals enjoy engaging in (or are inclined toward) effortful cognitive tasks. • 18 simple statements -Ex: “Thinking is not my idea of fun” • Response is: agreement/disagreement with statements. • Predicts susceptibility to persuasion, use of heuristics, and contextual cues etc. |
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Rorschach Inkblots Test
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-Series of 10 ambiguous images; no real meaning.
-Similarities across interpretations used to assess issues. |
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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
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- 31 ambiguous images (10 used at any one time). Recurring themes thought to reflect test takers own issues.
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Kurt Lewin
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Founding Father of Social Psychology
• B=f(P,E) • Applied Gestalt theory to social perceptions. |
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Social Cognition
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How people interpret/remember social information to make judgements and decisions.
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Schemas guide attention and memory
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• Information that is consistent with our schemas is easier to recall than information that is inconsistent with our schemas.
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Accessibility
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The extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of people’s minds.
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Priming
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is the process by which recent experience increase the accessibility of the schema.
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The Self Fulfilling Prophecy
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-People have an expectation about what another person is like
-Influence how they act toward that person -Causes that person to behave consistently with people’s original expectations |
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False Consensus
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The tendency to overestimate the communality of one’s opinions and one’s undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors.
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False Uniqueness
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The tendency to underestimate the commonality of one’s abilities and one’s desirable or successful behaviors.
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Automatic Believing: Controlled Unbelieving
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• Gilberts (1991) theory of automatic believing.
Automatic:Initial acceptance of information Controlled: -Assess truthfulness of accepted -Unaccept if necessary |
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Social Perception
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• The study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about others.
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Social Perception is influenced by factors associated with
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-The perceiver
-The person being perceives -The situation in which social perception occurs. |
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Nonverbal Behavior
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• Intentionally or unintentionally
-Without words • Facial expressions • Tones of voice • Gesture |
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Nonverbal Behavior is Used for
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-Expressing emotion
-Conveying attitudes -Communicating One’s Personality Traits -Facilitating Verbal Communication |
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Facial Expressions of emotion
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-Encode
-Decode |
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Encode
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(express) To express or emit nonverbal behavior.
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Decode
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(Interpret) To interpret the meaning of the nonverbal behavior other people express.
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Affect Blends
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A facial expression where one part of the face is registering one emotion and another part of the face is registering a different emotion.
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Display Rules
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culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display.
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Emblems
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nonverbal gestures that have well-understood definitions within a given culture.
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Attribution Theory
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A description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people’s behavior.
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Fritz Heider
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The father of Attribution Theory
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Internal Attribution
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-Attitude, character, or personality
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External Attribution
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The situation
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Hewstone & Fincham (1996)
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-Marital satisfaction and explanations for negative events
-Behavior to explain: She was late Dissatisfied Couples Offer internal attribution “She’s late because she doesn’t care about me.” Satisfied Couples -Offer external attribution “She’s late because of heavy traffic” |
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Correspondance Bias
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-The tendency to think people’s behavior corresponds to their disposition.
-Gilbert, 1998b |
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Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)
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Tendency to overestimate dispositional factors
-Tendency to underestimate situational factors -Heider, 1958 |
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Perceptual Salience
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the seeming importance of information that is the focus of people’s attention.
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Spotlight Effect
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The tendency to overestimate the extent to which our actions and appearance are salient to others.
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Self-serving Attributions
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-Taking credit for positive events (internal, dispositional) while blaming negative events to external causes (situational).
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Self Perception Theory
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• The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs.
o Ex: Forgetting that you took cold medicine and then inferring that your aroused state is due to frustration with spouse. |
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Misattribution of Arousal
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is the process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do.
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The Over-justification Effect
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• The tendency to believe that a behavior was extrinsically (not intrinsically) motivated as external incentives increase.
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Intrinsic Motivation
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is engaging in an activity for the pure enjoyment of the activity itself.
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Extrinsic Motivation
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is engaging an activity to gain external rewards or to avoid punishment.
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Social Comparison
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is the process of evaluating our own opinions, abilities, or performance by comparing ourselves to others.
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Lateral Social Comparison
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involves seeking similar others to compare to.
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Upward Social Comparison
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comparing ourselves to those who are better than we are on a particular trait or ability.
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Downward Social Comparison
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comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are on a particular trait or ability.
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Cognitive Dissonance in current use
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• FDA Warning labels.
• Some evidence suggests this will work (e.g., Glock & Kneer, 2009) • Reactance to overt persuasion is common. |
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Reducing Cognitive Dissonance `
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• Change your inconsistent behavior
• Change your inconsistent attitude or belief • Justify your inconsistent behavior/attitude by adding new cognitions |
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Post-decision dissonance
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o Dissonance after making a decision
o Every decision has good and bad o Irrevocability increases dissonance. |
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Justification of Effort
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o The tendency of ind. to increase liking for something difficult to obtain.
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Conformity
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• A change in one’s behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other people.
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Informational Social Influence
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o When a situation is ambiguous, we use others’ behavior as a source of information to guide our behavior.
o We assume others’ interpretation of the situation is more correct than ours. o Usually leads to private acceptance |
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Private Acceptance
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• Conforming out of a genuine belief that what others are doing or saying is right.
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Auto Kinetic Effect
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after fixating your gaze on a stationary point of light in a dark room, the light will appear to move, even though it remains stationary. It will appear to move more or less for different people.
o Not knowing this phenomenon, Ps were asked to estimate how much the light moved. |
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Private Acceptance
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changing behavior with genuine belief that behavior is right; long term change.
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Public Compliance
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changing behavior without necessarily believing behavior is right; short-term change.
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Contagion
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the rapid spread of emotions or behaviors through a crowd.
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People are more likely to conform if the situation is...
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• Ambiguous (most critical)
o When you are unsure of correct behavior. • A Crisis o Time limited; Fear and panic lower capacity to resist conformity. • Experts o Likely to be used as a guide when situation ambiguous. • Goal to be correct; Leads to private acceptance. |
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Normative Social Influence
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the influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them.
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Public Compliance
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-not private acceptance
• Conforming publicly, without necessarily believing in what you are doing. |
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Asch Line Studies
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• 8 Participants a group.
• Each provided a verbal judgment of which line was equal to the standard. • Correct answer was obvious (unambiguous). o Informational social influence should not apply • Correct answers given first 3 trials. • Other 7 participants (confederates) began giving wrong answer. • All gave the same wrong answer. • 76% of participants conformed at least once. • 33% of trials resulted in conformity when the wrong answer was given. |
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Obedience
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is conformity in response to a direct order from someone in authority.
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Milgrim’s Obedience Study (1963)
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• Most famous study in social psychology.
• Interested in why German people obeyed Hitler. • Thought Americans would NOT obey in the same way. • Purpose: “examine the effects of punishment on learning.” • Learner: memorize a list of words. • Shocks teach learner to do better when a mistake is made. • 15-450 volt shocks. • Learner was in the next room. Participant was teacher. o Learner was a confederate. • Shocks increased as the learner made additional mistakes. • 75 volts – first cries heard. o Ugh! • Experimenter says: “It is absolutely essential that you continue.” • Shocks increase, screams increase, experimenter’s insistence increases. • 150 volts – learner complains that his heart is bothering him. |
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Body Position and Tipping
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• Lynn & Mynier (1993)
• Squatting increased tips. • Why? -Eye contact -Friendliness -Closeness -Submissiveness |
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Four Criteria for Disorders
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1) Is the behavior/thought process atypical?
2) Is the behavior/thought process maladaptive? Does it prevent the person from successfully functioning and adapting to life’s demands? 3) Is the behavior/thought process personally distressing or distressing to others? 4) Is the behavior/ thought process irrational? |
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DSM IV
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• DSM: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
-Published by American Psychological Association (APA) -Lists the diagnostic criteria for each disorder -Example: “You must see evidence for 5 of the following 9 criteria” |
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Comorbidity
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-Two or more disordes may co-occur in the same person.
-Often, having one disorder predisposes you to have others as well. -Example: A person could be depressed because a phobia makes social situations impossible |
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Biopsychosocial model
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Disorders are an interaction between biological causes, psychological causes and social experiential factors.
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Schizophrenia
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• Schizophrenia is NOT multiple personalities!!!!
• Schizophrenia is characterized by loss of contact with reality and is often considered the most sever disorder. -A psychotic disorder due to loss of reality. • Typical onset begins in late teens to mid-30’s; approximately 1% of the population. |
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Positive Symptoms of Schizophrenia
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• Refer to something being added (active distortions of thought and behavior).
-Hallucinations: False perceptions; Hearing or otherwise experiencing events that did not occur. -Auditory hallucinations most common • Delusions: False beliefs -Persecution, grandeur |
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Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia
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• Refer to something being taken away (deficits resulting in removal or worsening of typical human functions).
-Lack of enjoyment of social interactions/ daily life -Failure to begin/ sustain activities -Flat affect=loss of emotion. -Face doesn’t move; monotone voice |
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Loose Associations
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are meaningful associations but they do not seem to be goal-directed.
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Diagnosing Schizophrenia
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• The presence (most of the time for at least a month) of at least two of the following:
-Hallucinations -Delusions -Disorganized speech -Disorganized or catatonic behavior -Any negative symptom (i.e. withdrawal) • DSM-IV includes five subtypes. |
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Neurotransmitter problems (Possible Cause of schizophrenia)
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-Too much dopamine in some parts of the brain
-Usually treat schizophrenia with drugs that block dopamine D2 receptors (antipsychotics) |
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Genetics (Possible Cause of schizophrenia)
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Many genes identified that increase risk for schizophrenia (not just one)
-Close relatives of schizophrenia are more likely to also be schizophrenic. |
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Major Depressive Episode
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is characterized by three types of symptoms (must be present for at least two weeks):
-Affective: depressed mood or lack of interest in social activities. -Cognitive: worthlessness/guilt, hopelessness, indecisiveness/concentration, suicidal ideation. -Somatic: loss of appetite, excessive sleeping or insomnia, lack of energy, sluggishness. |
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Affective
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depressed mood or lack of interest in social activities.
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Cognitive
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worthlessness/guilt, hopelessness, indecisiveness/concentration, suicidal ideation.
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Somatic
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loss of appetite, excessive sleeping or insomnia, lack of energy, sluggishness.
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Must have 5 of the following symptoms to be a major depressive episode
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-Sad depressed mood (most of the day everyday)*
-Loss of interest/pleasure in usual activities* -Difficulty sleeping or sleeping all the time -Shift in activity level -Poor appetite and weight loss or increased appetite and weight gain -Loss of energy -Negative self concept -Difficult concentrating -Recurrent thoughts of death or suicide -Must last more than 2 weeks |
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Pessimistic Explanatory Style
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a person explains events in terms of causes that are internal (their own fault), stable (here to stay), and global (applies to all aspects of their life).
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Manic Episodes
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• A manic episode is a period of at least a week of abnormally elevated mood in which the person experiences such symptoms as inflated self-esteem with grandiose delusions, a decreased need for sleep, constant talking, distractibility, restlessness, and poor judgment.
• Patients often resist treatment to keep their manic phase… but it is also maladaptive. |
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Bipolar I Disorder
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the person has both major manic and depressive episodes.
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Bipolar II Disorder
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- the person has full-blown depressive episodes, but the manic episodes are milder.
• Affects about 1% of population. • Strong genetic connection (70% concordance rate for identical twins). |
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Biological Predispositions
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Certain associations (e.g. taste→ sickness) are easily learned; others (e.g. taste→electric shock) are difficult.
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Agoraphobia
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A fear of being in places or situations from which escape might be difficult.
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Panic Attacks
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Sudden attacks of fear
-Many occur when faced with something dreaded, like giving a speech. -Other attacks occur without any apparent reason |
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Panic Disorder
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Having frequent panic attacks
-Different from GAD (Generalized Anxiety Disorder) where anxiety is constant |
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Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
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• High anxiety without any clear cause for 6+ months
-Accompanied by three or more of the following symptoms -Restlessness, fatigue, concentration problems, irritability, muscle tension, & sleep disturbance. • May be related to a biochemical dysfunction in the brain involving GABA (a major inhibitory neurotransmitter). -Failure to release GABA results in prolonged feelings of anxiety. |
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Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
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• Recurrent obsessions and/or compulsions perceived as excessive or unreasonable.
-Impair normal functioning |