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100 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Generally speaking, behavior is cause by the action of_____
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proteins
-Nerve cells -Enzymes that produce neurotransmitters or hormones -Receptors |
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What is narcolepsy and what are the symptoms?
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Excessive daytime sleepiness
Symptoms: Abnormal REM sleep --can inculde sleep paralysis, a condition in which it is not possible to move despite being awake Cataplexy --Muscle weakness triggered by emotions Hypnagogic hallucinations --Dream-like auditory or visual hallucinations while dozing or falling asleep |
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How many people does narcolepsy affect? How is it treated? What are some side effects of the treatment?
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1 in 1000 in US, Japan and Europe
amphetamines --can cause headache, nausea, nervousness and anxiety |
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By using genetic mapping, it was found that a single mutation was associated with narcolepsy like symptoms in dobermans. Where was the mutation?
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In the hypocretin receptor (neuropeptide made in hypothalamus that regulates arousal)
However this is not the same mutation as found in humans. |
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What is found to be the most probable cause of narcolepsy in humans?
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a low level of hypocretin in postmortem cerebral cortex and pons samples was found
Lead to new drugs targeting hypocretin pathway |
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Hypocretin and the CSF. What is the theory for how hypocretin is lost? Why is it hard to treat?
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about 90% of patients have no hypocretin in the CSF
Theory is that it is destroyed by autoimmune disease Hypocretin is a neuropeptide that does not cross the blood brain barrier --testing intranasal administration |
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What characterizes a quantitative trait?
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Influenced by many genes
variation is quantitative Offspring van have intermediate phenotype relative to parents |
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What is complex inheritance? In what way are most behaviors affected?
The more genes that influence a behavioral trait, the more____ possible |
Most behaviors affected by multiple genes (polygenic trait)
Combinations |
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Who was Dmitry Belyaev? What did he do? How many generations didi it take to get observable behavioral changes?
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Russian interesed in how Mendelian genetics influenced behavior.
He selectively bred silver foxes for reduced aggression and fear toward humans Just 8! |
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What did the fox studies indicate about temperament? What is a limitation?
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there is a genetic component to temperament (tameness)
Doesn't indicate which genes are involved |
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What is a promoter region? What is a promoter region like?
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A region of DNA that regulates gene expression
Like a volume knob that controls how much a gene is expressed |
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What is a Coding region? What is a coding region like?
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A sequence that codes for a protein
Like a blueprint that contains instruction on how to build a protein |
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How does the process of transcription work?
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Transcription factors bind to promoter region
Transcription factors allow RNA polymerase to bind to promoter region RNA polymerase begins to move down the strand of DNA and transcribe it into RNA. It unwinds the DNA as it moves down the strand. |
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Is there a lot of individual variation in coding regions of genes? Do promoters show much variability?
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NO!!!
Promoters show much more variability because they determine how much a gene is transcribed (turned on) |
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What region do knockout mice typically attempt to target?
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the coding region; although, it is possible to manipulate the promoter region too
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How are genes knocked-out?
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a specific gene is knocked-out by deleting some, or all of the coding region
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What are the effects of genes during development vs. in the adult?
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The genes may have different functions
Sometimes the behavior of a mouse will be more heavily influenced by what the gene does during development |
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What happens to mice, in terms of the elevated plus maze, when you knock out serotonin transporter gene?
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Mice spend less time exploring open arms when completely knocked out
Knockouts have increased "anxiety-like behavior" |
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Why is it that 5HTT knockout mice have increased anxiety?
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They have fewer serotonin neurons than wild types
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Why should you care about the implications of SSRI on fetuses?
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Fetus can be exposed to medication used by mom because they cross the placenta
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What happened to rats that were artificially selected for either a strong ability or weak ability to run mazes when they were put into different environmental conditions? What is the effect referred to as?
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Genetic differences in lines of rats could be masked by raising them in different environments
THe effect of a specific genotype depends on the environment Referred to as "norm of reaction" in evolutionary biology and genetics |
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What is conduct disorder? what are the symptoms?
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A "catch-all" category used to describe a group of behavioral and emotional problems in children and adolescents
Symptoms: -Aggression to people and animals -Destruction of property -Deceitfulness, lying or stealing -"Serious" violation of rules (e.g., truancy) |
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What other problems do children showing characteristics of conduct disorder frequently display?
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Mood disorders, substance abuse, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder
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Implication of MAOA activity and childhood maltreatment
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CHildren that were known to be severely maltreated and carried promoters for low MAOA activity were more likely to be diagnosed with conduct disorder and convicted for a violent offense as an adult
CHildren with higher MAOA activity appeared resistant to negative effects of poor environments |
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What is methylation? Why is it important to unwrap the DNA from histones?
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A specific kind of chemical change that can affect how easily DNA is unpacked from the histone
--methylation prevents a gene from being expressed --it is much harder to get into Methylated DNA than non-methylated DNA Because it allows genes to be expressed and translated into proteins |
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What is an important concept regarding methylation in different parts of the brain? (heat map slide)
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Different genes are turned on in different parts of the brain
Some patterns of methylation are similar across individuals |
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What is maternal care of rat pups dependent upon? What does the estrogen receptor do for this behavior?
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early experience; some rat moms show high levels of care, others low
Estrogen receptor expression promotes parental behavior |
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How does maternal care affect estrogen receptor expression?
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pups born to low maternal care mothers, and raised by high maternal care mothers have high estrogen receptor expression
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How does maternal care affect parental behavior?
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pups born to low maternal care mothers, and raised by high maternal care mothers show high levels of maternal care when raising their own pups
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How does methylation effect estrogen receptor expression
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Estrogen receptor expression in low maternal care rats is reduced because the estrogen receptor gene is methylated(and therefore silenced)
This transfers to subsequent generations and may be considered a mechanism of "inheritance of acquired characteristics" |
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What are Hertz (Hz)?
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Cycles per second of sound wave, perceived as pitch
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What is frequency?
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Number of pulses per second
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What is amplitude (intensity)?
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perceived as loudness
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What is Pure Tone?
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A tone with a single frequency- number of cycles- of vibration
Most sounds in the real world are not pure tones, they consist of multiple frequencies |
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What is the Stapedial reflex?
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muscles contract and reduce sound's effect (like after a concert)
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What does the middle ear do?
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concentrates sound energies
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What does the inner ear do? What are some components?
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the structures convert sound into neural activity
Mammals have a fluid-filled cochlea, a spiral structure with a base and an apex The base is nearest the oval-window membrane |
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How is the Basilar Membrane's movement affected by different frequencies?
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Sound waves cause the basilar membrane to vibrate
Different parts respond to different frequencies: Higher frequency excites the narrow base of the basilar membrane Low frequency travels further- toward wider apex |
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How does sound progress in the inner ear?
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The organ of Corti contains hair cells that bend when the basilar membrane vibrates
When hair cells detect a vibration, they stimulate the vestibulocochlear nerve which sends a signal to the brain |
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How does sound progress from the auditory nerve to the auditory cortex?
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Auditory nerve, Brainstem nuclei, inferior Colliculus (midbrain), Medial Geniculate Nucleus of the Thalamus, Auditory Cortex
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How are neurons within the brain organized?
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Tonotopically
--they are arranged in a map according to the frequencies they respond to. (main activation is in the primary auditory cortex of the temporal lobe) |
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What are the 2 general ways in which the brain localizes sounds?
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Intensity differences
--differences in loudness at the two ears Latency differences --different arrival times for sounds at the ears |
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What are the two kinds of latency differences?
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Onset disparity
--difference in hearing at the beginning of a sound Ongoing phase disparity --continuous difference between ears in arrival of parts of a sound wave SEE SLIDE 23 |
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What is the duplex theory? What happens at low frequencies?
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sound localization requires processing both intensity and latency differences
At very low frequencies, there is no intensity difference- the only cue comes from the time of arrival |
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What is Noise induced hearing loss (NIHL) caused by? What is the mechanism?
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Cause:
Impluse sound (explosion) Continuous loud sounds (music, machinery) Mechanism: Hair cells die --Mechanical damage, oxidative stress, excitotoxicity Hearing loss is irreversible and cumulative |
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What is Presbycusis? Causes?
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The most common form of hearing loss in adults between 65-75 y/o
Hearing loss is greater for high-pitched sounds (can hear a freight train but not the phone) Caused by: hair cell loss loss of blood supply to ear damage to middle ear |
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How is deafness treated?
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Cochlear implants
--electrical currents stimulate the auditory nerve Auditory brainstem implants (ABI's) --bypasses the ear altogether and stimulates the brainstem |
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How can stem cells be used to treat deafness?
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Stem cells are pluripotent
using growth factors it is possible to direct stem cells to differntiat into "hair-cell-like" cells and auditory neurons |
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What are the parts of the Vestibular system?
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Semicircular canals
--three fluid-filled tubes in different planes Utricle and saccule --fluid-filled sacs that respond to linear acceleration (falling, driving in a car, landing on an airplane) |
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What are yaw, pitch and roll?
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Yaw: rotation around z axis
Pitch: rotation around y axis (backflip) roll: rotation around x axis (barrel roll) |
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How do the semicircular canals work?
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When the head turns, fluid in the semicircular canal sloshes against hair cells
The hari cells are excited if pushed one direction, and inhibited if pushed the other direction |
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How does dizziness happen?
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When spinning, fluid in the semicircular canals moves in the opposite direction you are spinning
can also be caused by problems with vision, sensory nerves, or migraines Nausea occurs because nerves from the vestibular system interact directly with the autonomic nervous system can occur with no gravity, but eventually adapts |
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What are the 5 basic tastes? How are the perceived?
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Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami
perceived through a combination of tastes and smell |
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What is ion based detection?
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Salty- Na+ ions are transported across taste cell membranes
Sour- All acids taste sour because they release hydrogen ions (H+) |
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What are G-Protein receptors?
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Detect sweet, bitter and Umami tastes
Receptors are located on the cell membrane and bind to a specific ligand (like sucrose) |
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What is an example of how there are individual differences in taste?
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Individual variation in genes for T2R receptors are correlated with individual differences in perception to bitter
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Why do spicy foods taste hot?
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activates pain receptors
Peppers contain capsaicin, the chemical responsible for the burning sensation --target receptors that are also sensitive to heat |
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What is the labeled line system of taste?
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taste perception is determined by specific neurons that are active, not the pattern of activity across the different receptors
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How are odors detected?
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Olfactory epithelium
--receptor neurons in the nose Olfactory receptor neurons communicate directly with neurons in the olfactory bulb |
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What is the path taken to detect smells?
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Olfactory bub sensds message to both the olfactory cortex and the amygdala which then relay information the the hypothalamus, or the olfactory bulb directly communicates with the hypothalamus
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What do olfactory receptor cells possess? How many odor receptor types?
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only one type of odorant receptor
about 400 different odor receptor types allow humans to recognize and remember about 10,000 different odors --each odor receptor is activated by a number of similar odors |
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WHat do individual differences in odor receptor genes do?
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different preferences for smell
E.g., androstenone can smell good to some and like piss to others |
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Why do dogs smell so good?
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Canine olfactory epithelium is about 20x larger than humans
Dogs are about 100x more sensitive to certain odors than humans about 1100 genes for olfactory receptors (about twice as many as humans) |
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What is taste aversion learning: One trial learning?
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One trial learning
--many animals learn to avoid tastes that make them sick Children advised to avoid favorite food when on chemotherapy |
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What is the circuit involving taste aversion?
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Central nucleus of the amygdala appears important for integrating aversive experience
Basolateral nucleus of the amygdala appears important for linking aversive experience with taste |
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Is the human eye irreducibly complex?
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SOme argue that the human eye is, and that removal of one component renders the eye useless
Careful analyses of mollusk eyes show that intermediate forms of the vertebrate eye are quite functional though |
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Why is there distortion in the eye? Where is distortion reduced?
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Incoming light passes through the other ayers of retina before hitting photoreceptors
--distorted by fibers, ganglion cells, and bipolar cells Also there is a blind spot It is reduced in the fovea |
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What are "patches" for these distortion problems?
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Fovea:
--thinnest part of the retina and is used for high acuity vision Blind spot: --the visual system fills in the gaps, a "software" patch |
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What is the trichromatic hypothesis of color perception?
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There are 3 different types of cones, each responding to a different part of the spectrum
Each has a separate pathway to the brain |
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What is the opponent-process hypothesis of color perception?
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There are four unique hues and three oppsoed pairs of colors:
--Blue vs. yellow --Red vs. green --Black vs. white Three systems that produce opposite responses to different wavelengths |
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Different types of color blindness
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Protanopia: lacking L cones (no red)
Deutanopia: Lacking M cones (no green) |
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What are the peak sensitivities for the different pigments?
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S- peak at 420 nm
M- peak at 530 nm L- peak at 560 nm Other species have different spectral sensitivities in cones |
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What is a receptive field?
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The stimulus region and features that cause the maximal response of a cell in a sensory system
The receptive field of a retinal ganglion cell includes any place on the retina where light excites the cell and any place where light inhibits the cell Can vary in many dimensions |
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What is an important feature of the retina? Is it like a video camera?
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It detects contrast: differences in light intensity between points in the retina
--this is why a well-placed spot of light or an edge is more easily detected than uniform illumination |
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How does sensory info travel to and from the LGN
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sensory info from retina travels via optic nerve to LG (part of thalamus)
LGN cells have similar on-center and off-center receptive fields Visual information from LGN is sent to visual cortex |
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Cortical cell sensitivity
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cortical cells are sensitive to both orientation and motion
the further back in the visual system, the more complex feature detection is |
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What does the primary visual cortex (V1) do?
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appears to be involved in the formation of mental images
Even imagining small letters, brain imaging studies show increased brain activity in V1 About 25% of visual cortex is devoted to analysis of information from the fovea |
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What about V2
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Adjacent to V1 and has similar properties, but V2 can respond to illusory boundaries, and perceive complex relations among parts of the receptive fields
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What are retinal implants? Experiment/results?
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retinal prostheis that is implanted in the eye of 3 individuals who had previous visual experience as an adult
It received visual information wirelessly from a camera Results: patients improved in their ability to locate and count objects, determine orientation of capital L, and differentiate four directions of a moving object |
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What is Lazy Eye (AMblyopia)? how is it treated?
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Often due to a misaligned eye
Treated by surgery or "training" the misaligned eye by covering the good eye, or blurring it temporarily with a drug |
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How do 3D movies work?
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2 images projected at once
Polarizing lenses cause brain to create an illusion of 3 dimensions because each eye can only see one image |
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What is the appetitive phase of male reproduction? Consummatory Phase?
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Includes all behaviors that will gain access to mates
--sexual motivation --libido --courtship When copulation occurs --sexual performance --potency |
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What is the purpose of appetitive behaviors?
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to establish, maintain, or promote sexual interaction
Varies widely across species |
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What are some types of male appetitive behaviors?
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Vocal displays
Physical displays Grooming |
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WHat is female appetitive behavior often called? examples in rats and primates
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Often called proceptive
Rats --wiggling their ears Primates --vocalizations, approach/withdrawal |
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Do most female pregnancies occur in paced or nonpaced environments?
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Paced
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What is a pheromone?
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A chemical signal is released outside the body of an animal and affects other members of the same species
--usually non-volatile, you have to get up close to detect them (Flehmen resonse) |
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What is prostaglandin F? How do mammals detect pheromones?
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a pheremone that stimulates ovulation in female goldfish and is detected by males
detect them by with the vomeronasal organ (humans don't have) |
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Is there much variation in consummatory behavior between species?
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No, there are only so many ways it can be done so there is less variation than in appetitive behavior
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What is an example demonstrating how hormones are important in mating behavior? How can this be reversed? What is it called?
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A castrated male rat loses interest in mating as testosterone is no longer produced; however, behavior is restored with hormone treatment- the activational effect - hormones briefly activate behavior
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How can estrogens be used as male hormones?
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testosterone can be converted to estradiol in the brain
Androgens are usually required of sexual function outside of the brain. Androgens converted to estrogens by aromatase, which then binds to an estrogen receptor; a behavior is then initiated |
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When are females most likely to initiate sexual behavior? Least likely?
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during the ovulatory cycle (because estrogens are produced)
during the midluteal or premenstrual cycle |
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How might a female without ovaries engage in proprioceptive behaviors?
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with a combination of estrogen and progesterone treatments
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What is behavioral estrus?
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when estrogens and progesterone are at a peak and ovulation occurs
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What is the neural circuit for females? How is lordosis evoked?
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Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) is crucial to the lordosis response through steroid actions
Estrogen also stimulates progesterone receptors, which in turn contribute to lordosis through protein production The VMH sends axons to the periaqueductal gray in the midbrain --as the male mounts, sensory information via the spinal cord evokes lordosis |
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What is the neural circuit for males?
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The medial preoptic area (mPOA) coordinates male copulatory behavior
The mPOA sends axons to the ventral midbrain The vomeronasal organ (VMO) detects pheromones, which activate arousal VMO information is sent to the medial amygdala and in turn to the mPOA |
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Maternal behavior in rats produces four behaviors, what are they? How are theses displayed?
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Nest building, crouching over pups, retrieving pups, and nursing.
During pregnancy, exposure to hormones will prepare her brain to display these maternal behaviors immediately after giving birth |
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What do estrogens do for maternal behavior?
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they promote the onset in the medial preoptic area
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How do hormones change in male biparental mammals?
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prolactin dereases then increases
testosterone increases during gestation and decreases during the beginning of lactation after offspring is born |
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What does a manipulation of testosterone do for male parental behavior? Prolactin?
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Testosterone can increase, decrease, or have no effect on parental behavior.
Prolactin generally has no effect |