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351 Cards in this Set
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Piaget
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Swiss psychologist remembered for his studies of cognitive development in children (1896-1980)
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schemas and features of
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Piaget. Psychological structures that present an organized way of making sense of experiences
Adaptation- building schemas through interaction with environment. Can adapt by: Assimilation uses current schemas to understand the world Accommodation creates new schemas or adjusts existing ones. (Equilibrium=no change) Organization takes place internally, children rearrange/change schematic structures to create interconnected cognitive system. |
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Piaget stages of development
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1. sensorimotor (0-2 years)- infants think by interacting with the world through their senses
2. preoperational (2-7) - use symbols to represent their earlier sensorimotor discoveries. language, make-believe play 3. concrete observational (7-11) - reasoning becomes logical, non-abstract 4. formal operations (11 up) - sophisticated, hypothetical and abstract thinking |
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Erikson
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Follower of Freud
Stages o Psychosocial Development; focuses on question of identity, emphasizes role of society in development and personality formation -Infant (birth-1 year)= Trust v Mistrust -Toddler (1-3) = Autonomy v Shame/Doubt -Pre-school (3-6) = Initiative v Guilt -School-age (6-12) = Industry v Inferiority -Adolescent (12-19) = Identity v Role Confusion - Intimacy v Isolation - Generativity v Stagnation - Ego Integrity v Despair |
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Kohlburg
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Extension on Piaget's Theory,
Stages of Moral Development Preconventional Level (up to age nine): 1. obedience/punishment (avoid punishment) 2. self-interest (whats in it for me?) Conventional Level (age nine to adolescence): Other Focused Morality 3. interpersonal accord/conformity (good boy) 4. authority/social order mainenance (societal laws) Postconventional Level (adulthood): Higher Focused Morality 5. social contract (laws/rules flexible, fluid) 6. universal ethical principles |
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Bronfenbrenner
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Ecological Systems Theory: child develops within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment.
Co-founder of Head Start Microsystem - family, classroom, neighborhood Mesosystem - connections between 2+ social settings Exosystem - important external social forces Macrosystem - pervasive sociocultural systems |
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Vygotsky
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Socialcultural Theory of Cognitive Development -
Cognitive development as a socially mediated process where adult support (called scaffolding) helps children master skills they can't do on their own. 1. Independent work 2. Zone of Proximal Development (ZDP) 3. Out of reach |
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Howard Gardner
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Theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI) in his book Frames of Mind. Claimed that pencil and paper IQ tests do not capture the full range of human intelligences, and that we all have individual profiles of strengths and weaknesses across multiple intelligence dimensions.
- Linguistic; words, reading, writing - Logical/mathematical; patterns, relationships, best taught through logic games, riddles, concepts first details later - Bodily/kinesthetic; taught through physical activity, hands-on, acting - Musical; taught with lyrics, rhythms - Spatial/visual; taught through drawings, verbal imagery - Interpersonal (the ability to understand others); learning through dialogue, discussion - Intrapersonal (the ability to understand oneself); learning through independent study, introspection - Naturalist (the ability to recognize fine distinctions and patterns in the natural world) |
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Margaret Mahler
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Separation-Individuation Theory
1. Autistic phase 0-2mo, equilibrium with environment 2. Symbiotic phase 1-5mo, social smile, dim awareness of caretaker 3. Separation-Individuation phase 5-36mo - differentiation from mother - practicing locomotion - reapproachment (awareness of physical separateness) - object constancy (comfort at moms absence, knowledge she will return) |
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Developmental Delay
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Term often used to encompass a variety of disabilities of infants or young children indicating that they are significantly behind the norm for development in one or more areas such as motor, cognitive, or language
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Dyslexia
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Learning disability characterized by substandard reading achievement due to the inability of the brain to process symbols; also known as a developmental reading disorder
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Dyscalculia
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Also known as developmental arithmetic disorder; a learning disability that involves difficulty in math computation.
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Dysgraphia
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Learning disability characterized by difficulties with writing, including trouble with spelling, handwriting, or expressing thoughts on paper
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Dyspraxia
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Inability to perform coordinated movements despite normal function of the central and peripheral nervous systems and muscles
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Executive Functioning
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Cognitive processes including planning, making decisions, implementing strategies, inhibiting inappropriate behaviors, and using working memory to process information
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Non-verbal learning disability
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People with this disability may misunderstand non-verbal communications, or understand the communications but be unable to formulate an appropriate response. Eye contact can also be difficult for people with NLD, either because they are uncomfortable with maintaining it or because they do not remember that others expect it. Knowing when and how to use physical contact and recognizing emotions in others and expressing them for oneself can be problematic.
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Aspberger Syndrome
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On the autistic spectrum: no language delay, IQ normal or above average, language skills above average, strange or eccentric social behavior, restricted interests
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Down Syndrome
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A human congenital disease resulting from having an extra 21st chromosome, characterized by mental retardation and heart and respiratory defects.
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Fragile X Syndrome
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abnormality of the x chromosome caused by a defective FMR-1 gene and associated with mild to severe mental retardation and other health problems
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Early Intervention
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Birth-3 years: child's needs, developmental goals for child, and services to be provided documented in Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP).
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Early Childhood Education
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3 to 5 years: child's needs, school readiness goals for child, and services to be provided documented in Individualized Education Plan (IEP).
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Special Education Services
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5 to 21 years: child's special educational needs, annual goals and objectives for child during school year, and services to be provided documented in Individualized Education Plan (IEP).
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Identification of Gifted Students
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general guidelines: student should have above-average ability, creativity, and task commitment.
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IFSP
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Individualized Family Service Plan: documents and guides the early intervention process for children with disabilities and their families. It contains information about the services necessary to facilitate a child's development and enhance the family's capacity to facilitate the child's development. Through the IFSP process, family members and service providers work as a team to plan, implement, and evaluate
services tailored to the family's unique concerns, priorities, and resources. |
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IEP
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Individual Education Plan:
-statement of performance level - educational needs - goals - measurable objectives - annual review |
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504 Plan
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A legal document falling under the provisions of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. It is designed to plan a program of instructional services to assist students with special needs who are in a regular education setting. Not an IEP, as is required for special education students, however, a student moving from a special education to a regular education placement could be placed under a 504 plan
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Developmental Continuum for Writing
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Exploration: Scribbles, marks on paper
Early Pre-Conventional: Drawing with details Pre-Conventional: Drawing, random letters Emergent: Pictures, letter/sound connection, attempts words, directionality Developing: Meaning in text with words, spaces, sentences Developing Discovery: Expanded statements, moving toward more development Beginning: General topic developed w/ expanded list, simple sentences, some conventions Novice: Specific topic with supporting details and expan- sions, simple organization Bridging: Develops several ideas on surface of specific topic, some coherence and organization Expanding: Explores topic with focus, beyond surface, control of some aspects of writer's craft Independent: Developed focus, sufficiently adequate craft Fluent: Expanded focus, purposeful crafting, moving toward complexity Sophisticated: Insightful, expanded development with perspective, complexity, and significance, well-crafted |
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Techniques for generating writing topics
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-Brainstorming
-Semantic Mapping -Outlining -Reading -Research |
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Cardinal Numbers
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A whole number that answers the question "How many?"
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Ordinal Numbers
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Numbers that describe position or order (1st, 2nd, 3rd)
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Nominal Numbers
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Numbers used for identification only (ex: sports jersey)
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Properties of Real Numbers
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Commutative
Associative Identity Inverse Distributive |
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Commutative Property
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In mult or add, the order of two numbers may be switched around and the answer is the same. Ex: a+b = b+a.
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Associative Property
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Changing the grouping of numbers in addition and multiplication will NOT change the value. Ex: (7 + 4) + 8 = 7 + (4 + 8)
2 x 2 (3y) = 3y(2 x 2) |
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Distributive Property
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If a term is multiplied by addition terms in parenthesis, we need to "distribute" the multiplication over all the terms inside.
Ex: a(b + c) = ab + ac; ex: 4(3 + 8) = 4(3) + 4(8) |
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Density Property
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There is always another real number that lies between any two real numbers.
Ex: between 5.61, 5.62 lies 5.611, 5.612, 5.613 |
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Identity Property
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Zero added to any number is the number itself. Zero is called the "additive identity."
Any number multiplied by 1 gives the number itself. Number 1 is called the "multiplicative identity." |
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Inverse Property
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The operation which undoes an operation/the opposite operation:
subtraction is the inverse of addition, addition is the inverse of subtraction etc. |
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Base 10 Numbering System
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System that identifies place value. In the number 475, base ten refers to the position, the 5 is in the one's place, the 7 is in the ten's place and the 4 is in the hundred's place.
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Converting a decimal to a fraction
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To convert 0.75 to a fraction
1. Write down the decimal "over" the number 1 0.75 / 1 2. Multiply top and bottom by 10 for every number after the decimal point 0.75 × 100 / 1 × 100 = 75 / 100 3. Simplify the fraction 3 / 4 |
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Order of Operations
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PEMDAS:
parentheses, exponents, multiplication/division, addition/subtraction |
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Area of a triangle
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A = ½ b × h
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Area of a circle
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A = π × r2
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Area of a trapezoid
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A = h(b1 + b2)/2
b1, b2 are the lengths of each base |
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Area of a parallelogram
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b x h
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Perimeter of a circle
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P= 2πr or πd
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Properties of Triangles
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(1) sum of interior angles is 180°
(2) Triangle Inequality Theorem : The sum of the lengths of any 2 sides of a triangle must be greater than the third side (3) The largest interior angle and side are opposite each other, and the same relationship occurrs between the smallest sized angle and side and the middle sized angle and side. |
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Area of a Rectangular Solid
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L × W × H = A
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Area of a Cylinder
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A = π × r2 × h
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Area of a Sphere
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A = 4(π × r2)
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Volume of a Sphere
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V = 4/3(π × r3)
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Complimentary Angles
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Two angles that add up to 90 degrees
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Supplementary Angles
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Two angles whose sum is 180 degrees
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Opposite (Vertical) Angles
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The intersection of two lines (m1 and m3) form 4 angles. Opposite angles are equal (congruent).
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Alternate Angles
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Angles that lay outside the parallel lines and are on opposite sides of the transversal; They are congruent.
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Equilateral Triangle
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A triangle with 3 equal sides and all 3 angles equaling 60 degrees
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Isosceles Triangle
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A triangle with two equal sides and two equal angles.
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Scalene Triangle
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A triangle with no congruent sides or angles
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Types of Angles
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Acute Angles = 0 < x < 90
Right Angles = x = 90 Obtuse Angles = 90 < x < 180 Straight Angles = x = 180 |
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Similar Shapes
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Same shape but different size; corresponding sides are proportional
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Mass
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Mass = Density x Volume
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Farenheit to Celcius conversion
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ºF = ºC x 1.8000 + 32
ºC = .556 x (ºF - 32) |
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Jamestown, VA
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1607, first English settlement, motived by economics, failed to prepare for winter months
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Pilgrims (Puritans in England)
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austere religious group landed in Plimouth in 1619
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Mayflower Compact
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agreement whereby all signatories would follow rules established by majority vote; first constitution ratified in colonies; symbol of democracy
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13 Original Colonies
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Virginia, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Maryland, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Delaware, North Carolina, South Carolina, Pennsylvania, Georgia
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French and Indian War (1754-1763)
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British had to contend with other European powers interested in American conquest; British fought French and their allies for control of N. Am.; Britain kept control
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Treaty of Paris 1763
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Ended French and Indian War; Britain's purse drained and colonists' sense of dependence on Britain decreased
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Salutary Neglect
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wartime policy whereby colonies operated relatively unsupervised while Britain was fighting war
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Stamp Act of 1765
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imposed tax on documents to help support cost of British troops; protested by colonists; repealed (gave confidence and desire for self-rule)
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Townshend Act
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"Indirect" taxes imposed on colonists (taxes on imports); opposition widespread; boycotts of goods and protests organized
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Boston Massacre
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1770; colonists fired upon; created martyrs (including Crispus Attucks)
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Boston Tea Party
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1773; colonists threw imported tea overboard in Boston Harbor; symbolic and incendiary act
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Coercive Acts (a.k.a. Intolerable Acts to patriots)
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imposed by British; closed harbor until tea had been paid for, increased power of royal officials in MA and allowed for quartering of British troops anywhere
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First Continental Congress
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1774; called for repeal of Intolerable Acts and gathering of local militias
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First Battle of Revolution
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April 1775; Lexington/Concord
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Second Continental Congress
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1775; American independence declared, Declaration of Independence adopted 1776
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Declaration of Independence
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"when in the course of human events....we hold these truths to be self-evident..."; largely attributed to the work of Thomas Jefferson; based on John Locke's philosophy that govt inherits powers from the people
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Constitution
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Written in 1777 but allowed too much freedom for states. Rewritten and ratified after 1787
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Shay's Rebellion
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1786; poor farmers revolted against existing conditions in w. MA
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Federalist Papers
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written to support for Constitution in colonies by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay
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Bill of Rights
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1791; enumerated the rights of citizens; appended to Constitution
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Louisiana Purchase
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1803 - purchased Louisiana Territory from France; ambitious agenda of territorial expansion; guaranteed uninhibited exploration beyond Mississippi River
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Lewis and Clark
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Set off in 1804; govt-funded expedition of new territory in name of scientific and geographic research
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War of 1812
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Conflict with the British; caused by: desire for northwest expansion, impressment of sailors by Navy, British support of Am. Indian tribes, etc. D.C. burned by British.
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Treaty of Ghent
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Ended War of 1812; restored relations between two nations
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Monroe Doctrine
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1823; James Monroe issued; asserted that new nation's dominance in Western Hemisphere and instructed European nations to cease their interference on American continents
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Manifest Destiny
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19th century belief; divine justification for moving westward into new lands; focus on expanding boundaries for sake of economy and clout of the nation
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Missouri Compromise of 1820
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agreement passed to regulate slavery in new states; Missouri accepted as slave state, Maine as free; drew imaginary line dividing Louisiana Territory into two, free above, slavery below
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Compromise of 1850
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law allowed new territories to decide matter of slavery themselves
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Civil War Origins
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Pro vs. Anti Slavery in new territories; southern concern for inevitability of Northern control; Fugitive Slave Act; Dred Scott Case; etc. 1861: 11 southern states seceded
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Fugitive Slave Act of 1850
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Required citizens to capture and return escaped slaves under penalty of fine; outraged abolitionists
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Dred Scott Case of 1857
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Supreme Court ruled that slaves who resided temporarily in free states were still slaves, and Congress did not have authority to exclude slavery from a territory; can only be free citizen through birth or naturalization
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Battle of Gettysburg 1863
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Confederate Army sustained crippling loss of manpower
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Emancipation Proclamation (1863)
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issued by Lincoln; declared all slaves residing with Confederacy would be free; after this African American soldiers free to enlist
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Grant and Sherman
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Union generals
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Lee
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Confederate general; surrendered at Appomattox in 1865
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Reconstruction
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1865-77; Johnson carried out Lincoln's plans after assassination; aimed at re-invigorating economy of country as a whole, improving plight of former slaves, reorganize southern states
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Industrialization
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by 1900, 200,000 miles of railroad track; increased trade and supported growing economy; factory jobs increase
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U.S in WWI (in five phrases of less)
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WW1 breaks out in 1914; Americans favor neutrality until brutal U-boat attacks; Wilson lobbies to enter war; 3 million US troops deployed (1917); War ends 1918
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Great Depression
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Stock Market Crash of 10/29/1929. By 1932, 24% of Americans unemployed.
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New Deal
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Franklin Roosevelt enacted these reforms including agricultural and business regulation, public works projects, farm relief, establishment of Social Security system
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Pearl Harbor
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December 7, 1941 -- after Pres. Roosevelt led U.S. into war (before -- isolationism)
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Hiroshima and Nagasaki
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August 6, 1945 - atomic bomb dropped first, Japan refuses to surrender, second atomic bomb dropped. Japan surrenders.
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Domino Theory
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if one country in a region falls to communism, neighbors will as well; justified Vietnam War
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CONSTITUTION
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"we the people..."; highest law in U.S.; framework for government; 27 amendments so far (?); written in 1787; establishes system of checks and balances between three branches of govt.
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BILL OF RIGHTS
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First 10 amendments to Constitution; 1791; free speech, right to bear arms, protection from quartering, due process, protection from unreasonable search and seizure; trial by jury; etc.
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"the rule of law"
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no individual, organization, or govt body is above the law; our duty to follow and understand the law
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Process of Creating a Law
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representatives writes and introduces a bill; goes to a House of Rep committee and discussed/edited; debated and voted on in House; same thing then done in Senate. Committee blends House and Senate law and both have to approve final version. Then goes to president to be signed into law. Pres can sign, veto or ignore. If ignored and Congress is in session, after 10 days it becomes a law.
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Massachusetts Constitution
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Ratified in 1780. Oldest functioning constitution in the world. Protects rights of individual citizens and principles of federalism and popular sovereignty. Cities and Towns responsible for most govt. services.
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Mayors and City Councils in MA
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govern the cities, but towns are usually government by selectmen.
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Board of Selectmen in MA
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Usually elected for one- or two-year term.
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Town Meeting in MA
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tradition from Colonial times, still held regularly, allows direct participation in democratic process
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Capitalist System
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encourages innovation, competition, and an entrepreneurial spirit with aim of increased productivity and profit
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Israel
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great contribution is monotheism; area colonized (?) by Great Britain; modern state of Israel declared in 1948
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Ancient Greece
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lasting influence in science, philosophy, politics, games, literature, etc.; elements of democracy developed there; Draco - law belongs to all citizens; first democracy founded in Athens in approx. 500 BCE
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Ancient Rome
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conquered Greek dynasty; became regional power; conquered much of "known world"; Caesar - military conqueror and established calendar system; peace led to flourishing of arts and higher learning; began declining in third century
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Pax Romana
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First and second centuries CE - no major wars or internal conflicts; development of architecture, extensive road system, postal system; Roman law - fairness and constancy
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Middle Ages (a.k.a. Dark Ages)
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Post-Roman empire; church and feudal system exert power; political instability; Crusades - Christians vs. Muslims; Plague in 14th century
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Feudal system
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Nobles ruled over serfs (peasants); Serfs worked the land; Less powerful nobles (vassals) swore loyalty to powerful nobles, provided military protection
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Renaissance
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beginning of modern era - 1450; began in Italy; flourishing of arts and creativity; printing press in mid-15th century; Shakespeare; 14th-17th century
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Renaissance HUMANISM
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humanists would study ancient texts in the original, and appraise them through a combination of reasoning and empirical evidence
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Reformation
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Occurred during Renaissance: challenged dominance of Roman Catholic church/papal authority; Luther - 95 Theses in 1517; Humanism/Renaissance played direct role in sparking Reformation
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Enlightenment
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18th century (post-Renaissance); reason advocated as source of legitimacy and authority; question tradition; Locke - rights of natural people; Voltaire - supporter of social reform, human rights
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French Revolution 1789 - 1804
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Before - individual citizens' rights didn't exist; king/nobles/clergy in charge; rich vs. poor - HUGE separation; only poor taxed; France in trouble financially; people starving; Enlightenment ideals inspired revolutionaries; stormed the Bastille (symbol of nobility); absolutely monarchy soon gone; revolutionaries fought amongst themselves and executed many (Reign of Terror); war declared on France by other European nations; ended with Napoleon declaring himself Emperor of France
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Estates-General
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name of assembly of leaders of three estates -- nobility, clergy, commoners; met in May 1789 - to draft new tax policy; Third Estate (commoners) decided to declare itself the National Assembly and planned to create new constitution
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French Rev. vs. Amer. Rev.
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American Revolution officially began with a document, the Declaration of Independence; French Revolution officially began with an action, the Storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789. The most obvious difference was that the American Revolution resulted in the newly independent United States, whereas the French Revolution overthrew its own government. However, the French people were greatly impressed with the ideals of freedom and democracy sought by the new United States, and these greatly influenced their thinking.
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Industrial Revolution - 18th to 19th century
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began in Great Britain; major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a profound effect on the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of the times (wiki); intro of steam power
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World War I causes
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competition over resources in overseas colonies; Austria-Hungary vs. Serbia; Ferdinand assassination in 1914; other countries chose sides - Axis vs. Allies; began in 1914; Wilson tried to stay out; then sinking of Lusitania (128 U.S. died); Germany tried to get Mexico to join war and reclaim land from U.S.; U.S. joined in 1917; draft - 3 million people; ended in 1918
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Treaty of Versailles
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$33 billion in reparations from Germany to Allies; must accept blame for war (partly to blame for WWII); Germany lost land and all overseas colonies
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World War II causes
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Germany economically poor; bitter over loss of war; inflation high; high unemployment; govt. didn't have support of the people; Depression affected the world; rise of nationalism; turned to Hitler -- Nazis and Fascism; started building strong army (vs. Treaty of Versailles); Germany invaded Poland and war was declared by GB and France (1939); Japan on Germany's side; US stopped trading with Japan...then Pearl Harbor;
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Fascism
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power is concentrated in a single dictator; reject individualism; extreme patriotism; celebrates military strength and brute force; individual freedoms gone; strong countries have right to invade and conquer weak ones; Nazism unique brand of Fascism that involved biological racism and antiSemitism
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Appeasement - 1937-39
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policy of letting Hitler do what he wanted building his army and invading Czechoslovakia despite being vs. Treaty of Versailles; allowed Germany to grow too strong
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Cold War
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the continuing state of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition existing after World War II (1939-1945) between the Communist World - primarily the Soviet Union and its satellite states and allies - and the powers of the Western world, primarily the United States and its allies (wiki)
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Marshall Plan
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U.S. plan to aid in post-war European recovery
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Perestroika ("restructuring") - mid-1980s
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Gorbachev becomes more concerned with economic reform than arms race
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Glasnost ("openness")
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reduce corruption in Communist party and encourage increased contact with Western world
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Decolonization
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process where formerly European and U.S. colonies rejected foreign rule and protested further interference
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Characteristics of Living Things
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-composed of one or more cells
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Cell
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basic structural and functional unit of all living things (named after rooms in monasteries)
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Cell membranes contain...
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genetic material, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, salts, and other substances - (organic compounds b/c they all contain carbon)
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Compounds
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composed of molecules
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Molecules
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smallest particles of a substance that retain chemical/physical properties and has two or more atoms
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Macromolecules
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molecules that form living organisms - contain thousands of elements connected by chemical bonds
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Carbohydrates
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store and transport energy; provide structural support
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Lipids (or fats)
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store energy; formed by carbon and hydrogen; do not dissolve in water
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Proteins
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essential component of living cell; include enzymes, hormones and antibodies; essential for growth and repair of tissue
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Nucleic Acids
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store genetic materials that leads to replication or organism; store hereditary info
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Tissue
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series of cells that complete a shared function; can form organs
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Organ
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fully differentiated structural/functional unit that serves special function
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Organ System
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organs that work together to accomplish complex series of tasks (e.g., circulatory, digestive systems...)
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Prokaryote cells
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unicellular; contain cytoplasm and membrane; lack organelles; have no nucleus; example: bacteria
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Eukaryote cells
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contain organelles, membrane, and chromosomal proteins; examples: paramecia, skin tissue, organs
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Organelle
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differentiated structure within cell that performs specific function, e.g., nucleus, chromosomes, ribosomes, membrane, cell wall, cytoplasm, etc., etc.
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Nucleus
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Brain of cell; contains DNA
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Nuclear Membrane
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membrane that surrounds nucleus
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Chromosomes
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site of genetic information; contains DNA
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Ribosomes
|
house the machinery for cell function; inside nucleus
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
|
highway of networks of cell tissue
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Cell membrane
|
walls the entire animal cell; regulates entry/exit of substances
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Cell Wall
|
walls the entire plant cell; stronger than cell membrane; regulates entry/exit of substances
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Cytoskeleton
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"internal framework" of cell; organizes structures in the cell
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Cytoplasm
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"gelatin" inside cell; protects organelles
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Golgi Apparati
|
"ships" goods from ER to rest of cell
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Chloroplasts
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site of photosynthesis in plant cells; trap sunlight
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Mitochondria
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chemical powerhouse of cell; site of cellular respiration
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Lysosomes
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"waste disposal" sacs of the cell
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Vacuoles
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"containers" in animal cells for water and organic substances
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Central Vacuole
|
large "holding container" in plant cells for water; helps maintain turgor pressure
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Centriole
|
form spindle fibers to separate chromosomes during cell division
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Plant Cell (PC) vs. Animal Cell (AC)
|
PC: cell wall, chloroplasts, central vacuole. AC: cell membrane, several vacuoles; centriole
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Types of Tissues:
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Epithelial Tissue: covers body surfaces (including skin and organs).
Connective Tissue: supports other tissues; essential functions of mechanical reinforcement, immune surveillance, transport/diffusion of nutrients and wastes, and energy storage (fat). Nervous Tissue: responsible for rapid long-distance signalling, coordination, and "thinking". Muscle Tissue: gross movement by means of cellular contraction. |
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Epithelial
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line areas of body and surround organs keeping them separate from other organs; e.g., outer layer of skin, tissue that surrounds organs
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Connective
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add support and structure to the body; e.g., inner layers of skin, tendons, bone, fat, blood
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Muscle
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can contract; composed of two proteins that allow movement
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Nerve
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two types of cells - neuron and glial; create and conduct electrical signals managed by brain and transmitted via spinal cord
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Blood
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specialized fluid that delivers nutrient to cells and transports waste from cells; composed of four types of cells
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red blood cells
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most numerous; manufactured in marrow; deliver oxygen from lungs to body tissues via circulatory system
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white blood cells
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immune system; manufactured in marrow; fight diseases; # is indicator of infection
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platelets
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produced in marrow; release growth factors and aid in clotting
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Plasma
|
contain salts and various proteins
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Antigen
|
foreign substances located on surface of red blood cells
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Antibodies
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proteins produced in response to specific antigens; produced by lymphatic organ system; located in blood plasma; help immune system
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Blood types
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A - carries A antigen; B - carries B antigen; AB - carries A & B antigens; O - carries no antigens (universal donor)
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platelets
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produced in marrow; release growth factors and aid in clotting
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Plasma
|
contain salts and various proteins
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Antigen
|
foreign substances located on surface of red blood cells
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Antibodies
|
proteins produced in response to specific antigens; produced by lymphatic organ system; located in blood plasma; help immune system
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Blood types
|
A - carries A antigen; B - carries B antigen; AB - carries A & B antigens; O - carries no antigens (universal donor)
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Rh antigen
|
presence (or lack of) is a characteristic of blood type;
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+ or -
|
With or without the Rd antigen
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Organ System
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Two or more organs working together
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Skeletal System
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bones/cartilage/tendons/ligaments; provides support, protects organs, provides sites to which organs attach
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Integumentary System
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skin, hair, nails, sweat glands; provides protection for tissues, excretes waste, regulates temp; largest system
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Muscular System
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muscles; provides movement, controls movement of matter through organs
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Circulatory System
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heart, blood vessels, blood (?); transports nutrients, gases, hormones and waste
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Nervous System
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brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves; relays electrical signals through body, directs behavior and movement
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Respiratory System
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nose, trachea, lungs; provides gas exchange between blood and environment
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Digestive System
|
mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines; breaks down and absorbs nutrients for growth and maintenance
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Excretory System
|
kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra; filters out waste, toxins and excess water or nutrients
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Endocrine System
|
pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, etc.; relays chemical info along with nervous system to control physiological processes
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Reproductive System
|
manufacture cells that allow reproduction, i.e., sperm and eggs
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Lymphatic/Immune System
|
lymph, lymph nodes and vessels, etc.; destroys microbes and viruses and removes fat and excess fluids from blood
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Unique to all living things
|
metabolism, responsiveness, growth, reproduction, ecology and evolution
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Metabolism
|
living things exchange chemical matter with external environs & transform organic matter within cells resulting in release/use of energy
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Responsiveness
|
living things respond to stimuli such as light, heat, sound, etc.
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Growth
|
living things take in and organize material from environment into its own structures
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Reproduction
|
living thing can produce a copy of itself via reproduction; asexual (bacteria) and sexual (two parents to create offspring)
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Heredity
|
the passing of traits to offspring (from its parent or ancestors). This is the process by which an offspring cell or organism acquires or becomes predisposed to the characteristics of its parent cell or organism.
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(Gregor Mendel and the pea plants)
|
set of characteristics an organism receives from its parents
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Traits
|
a characteristic that distinguishes one individual organism from another
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Hybrids (heredity)
|
organisms with certain traits crossed with organisms with other traits
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Allele
|
different forms of a gene
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Dominant
|
expressed allele in hybrid
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Recessive
|
unexpressed allele in hybrid
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Phenotype
|
Traits an organism displays
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Genotype
|
genetic composition of alleles
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Mendel's Principles
|
Individual genes determine biological characteristics; for each gene, an organism receives on allele from one parent and one from the other; one allele may be dominant over another
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Ecology (what makes living things unique)
|
living thing is influenced by environment AND can alter its surroundings
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Evolution (what makes living things unique)
|
living thing can adapt to changes in environment; majority of time: organism develops abilities to deal more effectively with environment
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Darwin
|
credited with conceptualization of diversity of life, adaptation, natural selection, and survival of the fittest
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Adaptation (Darwin)
|
organisms possess traits that enable them to survive
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Fitness (Darwin)
|
ability of an organism to pass on traits to offspring successfully
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Natural Selection (Darwin)
|
only the fittest organisms survive and continue to exist in nature
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Kingdoms of Living Things
|
Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
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Adaptation (Darwin)
|
organisms possess traits that enable them to survive
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Fitness (Darwin)
|
ability of an organism to pass on traits to offspring successfully
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Natural Selection (Darwin)
|
only the fittest organisms survive and continue to exist in nature
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Kingdoms of Living Things
|
Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
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Carolus Linnaeus
|
developed taxonomic classification to organize living things in mid 1700s;
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|
binomial nomenclature
|
two-name system to identify an organism by listing genus and species
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Virus
|
not in any kingdom; not considered living; can't reproduce without a living host
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All plants need...
|
water, nutrients (especially nitrogen) from soil, carbon dioxide, and sunlight
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|
Plants manufacture _____ and _____ through photosynthesis.
|
oxygen; sugar
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|
|
Three Groups of Plants (according to life cycle)
|
Annual (completes entire life cycle in one full year), Biennial (takes about two years to complete cycle), Perennial (lives more than 3 years)
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Photosynthesis
|
process of converting light energy to chemical energy; occurs in plants and algae; takes place in leaves (chloroplasts)
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Light Reaction (photosynthesis)
|
light energy converted to chemical energy
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Dark Reaction (photosynthesis)
|
converts CO2 and water into sugar, stored as starch
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Respiration
|
enables animals to use oxygen to release carbon dioxide into the environment, which is then used by plants for photosynthesis
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Mutualism
|
two organisms interact to benefit of both
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Commensalism
|
one organism benefits, other is unharmed (barnacles)
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Parasitism
|
one benefits at expense of other (tapeworm)
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Amensalism
|
one is destroyed, other is unaffected (animals trample grass, grass dies)
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Biome
|
geographical area that contains distinctive plant and animal groups adapted to that environment (determined by geography and climate)
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Ecosystem
|
living community that is composed of complex relationships between each member and environment
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Habitat
|
areas or environments where an organism lives
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Food chain/Food web
|
Living part of an ecosystem; plants at beginning of chain (producers); Consumers eat plants and other organisms
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Carnivores
|
eat only animals (sharks, numerous mammals)
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Herbivores
|
eat plants (rodents, deer, cattle)
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Omnivores
|
eat both plants and animals (humans)
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Decomposers
|
feed off dead plants and animals (fungi and bacteria)
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|
|
Simple life cycle
|
Before/At birth...Infancy (youth)...Adult
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|
Complex life cycle
|
Includes metamorphosis
|
|
|
Metamorphosis
|
biological process during which an animal progresses through several distinctive changes in body structure (butterfly)
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|
|
Life Cycle of Butterfly
|
Eggs, Caterpillar, Pupa or Chrysalis, Adult emerging from Chrysalis, Butterfly
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Life Cycle of Amphibian
|
Egg, Tadpole with external gills, Legs appear then forelimbs, Frog
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Molting
|
periodic shedding of all or part of outer covering (i.e., skin, shell, feathers, exoskeleton, etc.)
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Matter
|
Physical material that occupies space and has mass
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Mass
|
measure of the amount of material in an object (think: astronaut in space still has mass)
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Weight
|
Force that mass exerts as a result of gravity (think: astronaut in space is weightless)
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|
|
Newton's Law of Gravity
|
there is an attractive force between all masses
|
|
|
Volume
|
three-dimensional space occupied by matter; expressed as meter-cubed (m to the 3rd power)
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|
|
Density
|
amount of mass in a unit volume of a substance; density = mass over volume (think: lead has higher density than a feather)
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|
Solids
|
Definite volume and shape; cannot be compressed
|
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Liquids
|
Distinct volume, takes shape of container; cannot be compressed
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Gas
|
No distinct volume and shape; volume conforms to container; can be compressed and expanded
|
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Plasma
|
like a gas, but can conduct electricity (lightning); volume and shape conform to container
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|
Pure substances
|
Cannot be broken down by chemical or physical means (anything on periodic table, water, table salt, etc.)
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|
|
Physical Properties
|
Can be measured without changing the substance: taste, odor, density, color, melting and boiling points, hardness
|
|
|
Chemical Properties
|
How substance will interact with other substances: flammability, radioactivity, sensitivity to light, oxidation, toxicity
|
|
|
Physical Change
|
Substance changes physical appearance but not identity (ice to water, water to vapor)
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|
Chemical Change
|
Substance changes to another substance (logs burnt in a fireplace, egg cooked, car rusts; photosynthesis, respiration, digestion)
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|
|
Mixture
|
combination of two or more substances in which eat retains identity (oil & water, sand & water, concrete)
|
|
|
Elements
|
Cannot be decomposed into simpler substances; Mendeleev first created Periodic Table of Elements
|
|
|
Compounds
|
Composed of two or more elements that are chemically combined
|
|
|
Atomic Theory (Dalton)
|
1) each element composed of atoms; 2) all atoms of one element are identical; 3) atoms of different elements have diff properties; 4) atoms are neither created nor destroyed; 5) atoms can combine to form compounds; 6) in any compound, number and kind of atoms are constant
|
|
|
Law of Conservation of Matter or Mass
|
matter cannot be created or destroyed
|
|
|
Law of Constant Composition
|
the composition of a substance is alway the same (molecule of water will always have two atoms hydrogen, one atom oxygen)
|
|
|
Law of Multiple Proportions
|
the masses of one element combined with another element are always whole numbers
|
|
|
Law of Conservation of Energy
|
energy cannot be created or destroyed (amount of energy required to light up a bulb is equal to amount of energy emitted by the light bulb)
|
|
|
Atom
|
Protons (positive charge) and Neutrons (no charge) in the nucleus; Electrons (negative charge)
|
|
|
Molecule
|
Combination of two or more tightly bound atoms; acts as a singular object
|
|
|
Energy
|
Capacity of a physical system to perform work; can be transferred as heat (forms: heat, sound, chemical, nuclear, light, mechanical, electrical, electromagnetic)
|
|
|
Potential Energy
|
energy that is stored in matter (object in rubber band pulled back in slingshot -- energy is potential; kinetic after object leaves band)
|
|
|
Kinetic Energy
|
energy contained in a moving mass
|
|
|
Conduction (transfer of heat energy)
|
atoms and molecules collide to transfer kinetic energy (atomic and molecular level)
|
|
|
Convection (transfer of heat energy)
|
heat moves from hot region to cold, but involves large amt of matter, thus macroscopic (heating water)
|
|
|
Radiation (transfer of heat energy)
|
light energy in form of heat transferred from sun to earth; moves in electromagnetic waves
|
|
|
Waves (electromagnetic)
|
specific properties; each color on spectrum has specific wavelength and emits specific amt of energy
|
|
|
Motion
|
any spatial and/or temporal change in a physical system; described in terms of velocity, acceleration, displacement and time
|
|
|
Vector
|
quantity that has size and direction; symbolized by arrow
|
|
|
Velocity
|
rate of change of an object
|
|
|
Acceleration
|
change in velocity over time
|
|
|
Displacement
|
distance from the point at which the object is at rest to the end point of motion
|
|
|
Time
|
denotes sequence of, duration of, and intervals between events
|
|
|
Sir Isaac Newton
|
laws of motion
|
|
|
First Law of Motion
|
object at rest remains stationary and object in motion moves at same speed unless acted on by unbalanced force
|
|
|
Inertia
|
tendency of an object to resist change in motion
|
|
|
Second Law of Motion
|
when a force is placed on an object, it will accelerate in the direction of the force; acceleration is proportion to force applied
|
|
|
Third Law of Motion
|
every action has an equal and opposite reaction (recoil of gun)
|
|
|
Lever
|
bar that rotates around a fixed point called a fulcrum (three classes depend on location of fulcrum and input/output forces) (1st: seesaw, 2nd: nail clippers, 3rd: baseball bat)
|
|
|
Wheel and Axle
|
large wheel secured to smaller wheel or axle; when one part turns, other part turns
|
|
|
Pulley
|
Grooved wheel turns freely in a frame called a block; can change direction of a force and gain mechanical advantage
|
|
|
Inclined Plane
|
Even surface that slopes (ramp, ladder, stairs); remains stationary
|
|
|
Wedge
|
Modification of inclined plane; used to separate or hold something; can move (scissor blades)
|
|
|
Screw
|
Modified version of inclined plane
|
|
|
Compound/Complex Machines
|
combinations of simple machines (wheelbarrow: wheel and axle and lever; can opener: wheel, lever, wedge)
|
|
|
Time for Earth to Orbit Sun
|
approx. 365 days
|
|
|
Time for Earth to rotate on its axis
|
approx 24 hours
|
|
|
Distance between Earth and Sun
|
93 million miles
|
|
|
Coldest temp on Earth
|
-128.5 degrees F (Antarctica - 1983)
|
|
|
Highest temp on Earth
|
136.4 degrees F (Libya - 1922)
|
|
|
Major components of breathable air
|
Nitrogen (78.08%); Oxygen (20.94%)
|
|
|
Moon orbits Earth in...
|
approx. 28 days (month)
|
|
|
Earth is...
|
wider at the equator than from the North to South Pole
|
|
|
Solar eclipse
|
moon travels between Sun and Earth during middle of day and blocks Sun's light from Earth
|
|
|
Lunar Eclipse
|
Moon moves into Earth's shadow during the night and blocks the moon from the Earth (from the sun's rays, no?)
|
|
|
Physical Earth
|
inner core, outer core, mantle, upper mantle, crust
|
|
|
Inner core
|
solid -- contains nickel
|
|
|
Outer core
|
liquid - contains lead (two times as thick as inner core)
|
|
|
Mantle
|
below crust; flexible; upper composed or rock; lower is hot and plastic-like (?)
|
|
|
Crust
|
outermost surface; two types -- continental and oceanic
|
|
|
Lithosphere
|
layer that includes crust and part of upper mantle; site of volcanoes, earthquakes, continental drifts, etc.
|
|
|
Tectonic Plates
|
100 k thick; continental and oceanic crust; convection (heat energy) causes plates to move constantly in diff directions; 8 major ones and many minor
|
|
|
Boundaries
|
where tectonic plates meet; most active volcanoes located there
|
|
|
Relief
|
difference in elevation between two points
|
|
|
Igneous Rocks
|
formed by molten rock
|
|
|
Sedimentary Rock
|
formed by rocks and minerals resulting from chemical and physical breakdown of pre-existing rocks; e.g., quartz, shale, limestone
|
|
|
Metamorphic Rock
|
changed into another kind of rock (usually by heat or pressure); e.g., marble
|
|
|
Properties of Rock
|
hardness, luster, density, cleavage, fracture, twinning, transparency, color, special light effects, streak
|
|
|
Water Cycle
|
Accumulation, Evaporation/Transpiration, Condensation, Precipitation, and Run-Off
|
|
|
Transpiration
|
water is absorbed through roots of plants, moves to leaves, and evaporates into atmopshere
|
|
|
Weather -- factors that impact
|
latitude, altitude, prevailing winds, distance from sea, ocean currents, Earth's tilt, mountains, people
|
|
|
Splash Erosion (exogenous process modifying Earth)
|
rain splashes down and knocks soil particles into air
|
|
|
Sheet Erosion (exogenous process modifying Earth)
|
particles unearthed via splashing move downhill to cause sheet-flooding
|
|
|
Ice as Erosive Force
|
Powerful erosive force; water under glacier freezes and breaks off pieces of rock
|
|
|
Waves as Erosive Forces
|
seriously erode rocks along the coastline
|
|
|
Ocean Waves
|
characterized by height, length, period, and speed; carry energy across vast distances
|
|
|
Tides
|
created by pull of gravitational force; fluctuate daily as moon, Earth and Sun interact; pull of Earth's side closest to moon pulls ocean water and creates bulge
|
|
|
Empiricism
|
use of evidence that is based on the senses and can be replicated, critiqued, and experienced by other scientists
|
|
|
Rationalism
|
use of logical reasoning; not instinctive or intuitive
|
|
|
Skepticism
|
persistent interrogation of beliefs and conclusions
|
|
|
Scientific Inquiry
|
asking questions, gathering evidence, considering alternative explanations, weighing evidence, drawing and articulating conclusions
|
|
|
Themes of Scientific Discovery
|
tension between science/govt/religion have existed since beginning of time; war/warfare promote advances in tech/engineering; scientific thinking enhances communication and further discovery; discoveries about nature/evolution/body have led to engineering breakthroughs that pervade all aspects of life; interdisciplinary nature of scientific discovery
|
|
|
Questioning (scientific inquiry)
|
Process of posing factual, analytical, evaluative questions that seek to inquire about events in the natural world
|
|
|
Observation (scientific inquiry)
|
process of using all senses and tech to gather info
|
|
|
Hypothesizing (scientific inquiry)
|
process of posing educated guess or possible theory or statement
|
|
|
Variable (scientific inquiry)
|
Dependent: NOT under our control; Independent: IS under our control, we manipulate in order to see what happens
|
|
|
Descriptive Clarity
|
What is known about how this study was conducted?
|
|
|
Data Quality
|
Are data sources legitimate, credible and rational?
|
|
|
Analytic Integrity
|
Are findings credible, replicable, and trustworthy?
|
