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102 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Motor Skills
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Tasks needing VOLUNTARY head/body/limb movement to achieve goal
aka "actions" |
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Motor Learning
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Re/acquisition or performance enhancement of motor skills
Behavioral &/or neurological changes w/ learning |
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Motor Control
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How the neuromuscular system activates/coordinates muscles/limbs involved in performing a motor skill; enabling coordinated movement
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Skill
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A task w/ a specific purpose or goal to achieve
Indicates performance quality |
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4 Characteristics of a Skill
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1) Goal to achieve
2) Requires body movement 3) Performed voluntarily 4) Needs to be learned/relearned (practiced) |
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Movements
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Behavioral characteristics of specific limbs that are components of an action or motor skill
*Diff. movements can achieve the same goal; ex: running form |
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1-Dimension Classification Systems
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1) Size of Primary Musculature Required
2) Specificity of where movements of a skill begin/end 3) Stability of Environmental Context (i.e. supporting surface, objects/other people involved) |
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Size of Primary Musculature Required
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- Gross motor skills (use large muscle groups to achieve goal) [low precision]
-Fine motor skills (control small muscles for goal) [high precision] |
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Specificity of Where Movements of a Skill Begin/End
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- Discrete motor skill (defined begin/end points)
- Continuous motor skill (arbitrary begin/end points) - Serial motor skill (sequence of discrete skills) |
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Stability of Environmental Context
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- Closed motor skill (stationary environment, self-paced, high performer control)
- Open motor skill (nonstable, unpredictable environment, externally paced) |
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Gentile's 2-Dimensional Taxonomy of Motor Skills
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1) Environmental Context
2) Function of the Action |
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Environmental Context (Gentile's)
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1) Regulatory Conditions -- features of environ. context that determine movements needed to perform action [stationary vs. in-motion]
2) Intertrial Variability -- if regulatory conditions during performance are present/absent between attempts [fixed vs. variable] |
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Function of the Action (Gentile's)
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1) Body Orientation -- body stability vs. body transport
2) Object Manipulation -- holding vs. using an object |
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3 Influential Factors of Motor Learning
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1) The Person (learning style, genetics, experience, motivation, etc)
2) Performance Environment (change, distractions, other people, etc) 3) The Skill |
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Motor Ability
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Genetic determinant of achievement potential
Explanations: -General Motor Ability Hypoth. -Specificity Hypoth. ex. Talent Identification |
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External Validity
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Generalizability of participants or the environment of testing
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Internal Validity
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Manipulation of Results
- Instrumentation/Equipment - Social Desirability (Hawthorne Effect) - Group assignment - Order effects - Fatigue |
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Coordination
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Patterning of head/body/limb motions relative to patterning of environmental objects/events
i.e. organizing degrees of freedom into efficient movement patterns to achieve a goal --> Independent of performer's skill level --> Considered @ specific point in time |
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Degrees of Freedom
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# of independent elements in a control system (body)
# ways each element can act (ex. elbow flexion/extension) |
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Open-Loop Control System
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All info needed to carry out an action as planned contained in initial instruction to effectors; no feedback
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Closed-Loop Control System
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Feedback compared against reference to enable action to be carried out as planned during its course; can make adjustments
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Feedback
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Afferent info sent by sensory receipts to control center
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Degrees of Freedom Problem
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Problem: How can an effective/efficient control system be designed so that a complex system (i.e. body) is constrained to act a certain way?
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Motor Program
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Memory representation storing information needed to perform an action
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Schmidt's Generalized Motor Program (GMP)
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- Controls a class of actions w/ common invariant features
- Provides basis for controlling a specific action within class of actions 1) Retrieve program from memory 2) Add movement-specific parameters to meet situation |
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Invariant Features
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Unique set of characteristics in a GMP (fixed)
1) Sequence of actions (order of components) 2) Relative timing (% time spent on a component) |
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Parameters
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Features of a skill that's added to invariant features before a person can perform a skill to meet specific movements of a situation (Flexible)
1) Overall duration 2) Overall force 3) Movement direction 4) Muscle selection |
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Schmidt's Schema Theory
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Motor response schema provides parameters to a GMP
*Explains how people adapt to new environmental contexts *Solves degrees of freedom problem w/ an executive control operation 1) Initial conditions (present @ start) 2) Response specifications (parameters in execution) 3) Sensory consequences (feedback) 4) Response outcome (success) |
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Schema
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A set of rules serving to provide the basis for a decision
An abstract representation of rules governing movement |
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Dynamic Pattern Theory
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Movement patterns self-organize as a function of the learner/environment/task constraints
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Kelso & Schoner (1988)
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Spontaneous phase shift in finger movement
*Represents nonlinear changes in movement behavior |
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Nonlinear Behavior
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Behavior changes in abrupt ways in response to a systematic linear increase in value of specific variable
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Stability
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Behavioral steady state of a system
*System will return spontaneously to stable state if pertubed |
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Attractor
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Preferred behavioral state that's STABLE & ENERGY EFFICIENT
ex. Gait pattern; grip strength; walking vs. running |
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Absolute Error
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Actual vs. Goal errors
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Constant Error
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Tendency to be directionally biased
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Variable Error
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Errors in Consistency
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Action Preparation
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Activity occurring between intention to perform an action and initiation of action
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Reaction Time (RT)
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Index of preparation required to produce an action
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Stages of Processing
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1) Stimulus Identification (recog. & identify) [perception]
2) Response Selection (translate sensory input) [decision] 3) Response Programming (organize motor system to produce desired amount) [action] |
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Simple Reaction Time (RT)
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1 stimulus, 1 response
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Choice RT
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More than 1 stimulus, each stimulus has specific purpose
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Task/Situation Characteristics Influencing Preparation
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1) # Response choices
2) Predictability of correct response choice 3) Influence of probability of precue correctness 4) Stimulus-Response compatibility 5) Foreperiod Length Regularity 6) Movement complexity 7) Movement accuracy 8) Repetition of movement 9) Time bet. diff. responses to diff. signals |
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Types of Advance Information
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- Warning signal
- Foreperiod - Precue - Psychological refractory period |
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Foreperiod
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Time interval between warning signal & stimulus
* 1-4 seconds optimal * Consistent foreperiod = faster RT |
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Precue
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Environmental clue aiding performer in detecting advance info
*If perceived probability = 80%, action prep biased *Cost-benefit trade-off |
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Psychological Refractory Period
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Delay in response for 2nd stimulus
Only 1 action can be organized/initiated at a time |
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Hick's Law
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Law: RT increases as # stimulus-response choices increase
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Reducing Uncertainty
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- Systematically decrease # possible response alternatives
- Assess potential success of options - Look for min # of relevant characteristics |
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Increasing Uncertainty
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- Increase repertoire
- Fake out opponents |
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Stimulus-Response Compatibility
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Natural relationship between stimulus & response choices
*Faster RT as relationship is more compatible Ex: Stroop Effect (color names) Ex: Stove burners and controls |
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Motor Control Activities during Action Prep
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- Postural preparation (muscles activate b4 movement execution to ensure stability)
- Limb movement characteristics (direction, trajectory) - Force to manipulate object - End-state comfort control (ex. grabbing mug) |
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Response Time
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Reaction Time + Movement Time
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Attention
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Consciousness, awareness, & cognitive effort relating to skill performance
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Bottleneck Theory
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Limited attentional capacity; filter only allows certain info to be processed
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Central Resource Capacity Theories
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-Flexible attentional capacity
-Consider individual, task & environment ex. Novice vs. expert, arousal, fatigue, simple vs. complex task [circle of attentional capacity, can't go outside circle] |
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Multiple Resource Theories
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Tasks demanding attention from same resource pool are more difficult
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Cell Phones & Driving Studies
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(1)
Hands-free (a) vs. Hand-held (b) vs. no phone (c) --> Increase RT needed to break (a,b) --> 2x more likely to miss signal (a,b) --> No sig. dif. bet. a & b (2) Hands-free (a) vs. Talk to passenger (b) vs. No convo (c) --> Increase driving errors (a) --> No sig. dif. bet. b & c |
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Dual-Task Procedure
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Assess degree of interference when simultaneously performing 2 tasks
Primary: What are the attentional demands? Secondary: Task causing interference |
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Selective Attention
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How we allocate processing resources
Relevant vs. Irrelevant cues ex. Cocktail party phenomenon |
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Attentional Focus
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Width & Direction of attention to specific characteristics in a performance environment/action prep activities
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Attentional Styles
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1) Broad-External
2) Broad-Internal 3) Narrow-External 4) Narrow-Internal |
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Action Effect Hypothesis
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Directing attention to movement outcomes rather than movements themselves leads to increased performance
ex. Automaticity |
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Arousal
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General state of excitability
--> Continuum of intensity --> Pleasant/unpleasant events *Inverted-U Hypothesis |
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Factors of an Optimal Arousal Level
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1) Task
- Gross vs. fine motor skills - Cognitive complexity (decision making) [high = low arousal] 2) Learner - Trait anxiety (negative) - Zone of optimal functioning (ppl have optimal level regardless of task) - Motivation 3) Environment - Perception of whether you can meet situational demands |
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Cue-Utilization Hypothesis
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1) Low Arousal Level
--> wide/broad perceptual field (attention to irrelevant cues) 2) High Arousal Level --> Perceptual narrowing (miss relevant cues) 3) Moderate Arousal Level --> Pick up relevant cues, exclude irrelevant cues |
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Transfer of Learning
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Influence of previous experiences on performing/learning a new skill
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Positive Transfer
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Previous experience beneficially facilitates learning of new skill
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Identical Elements Theory
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Similarities of skill components and context components for transfer
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Transfer-Appropriate Processing Theory
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Similarities in cognitive processing for transfer
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Negative Transfer
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Previous experience hinders learning of new skill or performing a skill in a new context
ex. Driving on the other side of the road |
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Memory Representation
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Familiar environment triggers preferred response
- Cognitive confusion created by unfamiliar context or required response |
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Zero Transfer
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Experience w/ one skill has no influence on learning another skill
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Fostering Positive Transfer
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- Skill progression
- Training aids - Simulation training - Skill referred to needs to be well-learned - Use in initial stage |
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Bilateral Transfer
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Practice w/ 1 limb enhances skill acquisition w/ opposite limb on same task
Direction: 1) Asymmetric - Increased amount of transfer from 1 limb to another 2) Symmetric - Similar transfer amounts regardless of which one 1st *Preferred to non-preferred has greatest transfer |
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Explanations for Bilateral Transfer
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Cognitive Explanation: info related to what's need to achieve goal; relevant to skill performance regardless of skill used
Motor Control Explanation: - GMP (practice w/ 1 limb estab. a GMP, Muscle selection a parameter) - Dynamic Pattern Theory (movement patterns learned w/o references to limb use) - Neural signals from CNS (EMG activity in non-performing limb) |
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Tactile Sensory System
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Influences:
-Accuracy -Consistency -Force adjustments while holding object -Movement distance |
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Proprioception
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*Perception of body/head/limb position*
1) Golgi-Tendon Organs (GTOs) --> Detect changes in muscle tension/force 2) Muscle Spindles --> Detect changes in muscle length/velocity "stretch reflex" 3) Joint Receptors --> Detect changes in joint angles, damage protection 4) Vestibular apparatus --> Respond to changes in posture/balance |
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Proprioception & Performance
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- Aids in efficiency & regulation of motor control
- Info before movement initiation - Movement evaluation & correction - Isn't developed by novices |
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Lack of Proprioception
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- Increased dependence on vision
- Deafferentiation (afferent neural pathways removed) |
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Visual Sensory System
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70% of sensory receptors in EYES
- Vision overrides proprioception when they provide conflicting info |
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Photoreceptors
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Converts images into nerve impulse
1) Rods: responds to low levels of light (retinal periphery) 2) Cones: responds to bright light (fovea in center of eye) *More rods than cones |
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2 Visual Pathways
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1) Focal Vision
- Uses central visual field - Voluntary control - Cones 2) Ambient Vision - Uses central/peripheral visual field - Subconscious level - Rods (higher reliance on ambient vision) |
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Binocular Vision
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Looking w/ 2 eyes (monocular = 1 eye)
Helps w/ depth perception, can intercept moving objects |
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Eye Dominance
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- Same-side dominant
- Cross dominant |
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Performance in Aiming Tasks
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Better task performance w/ both eyes open
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Quiet Eye
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Gaze fixation prior to an action
--> A single, critical location --> Longer = better ex. Golfers look @ back of ball for 2-3s ex. Free throw shooters fixated on hoop longer |
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Visual Search
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Expert vs. Novice
Soccer: position/movement of other players, hips (Novices look @ ball) Baseball: pitcher's release point (Novice looks @ head) Eye on the ball: monitor flight initially, then leave gaze in front |
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Bimanual Coordination
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Motor skills requiring simultaneous use of 2 arms
1) Symmetric (ex. rowing) 2) Asymmetric (ex. tennis serve) |
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Speed-Accuracy Trade-off
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Speed influenced by movement accuracy demands
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Fitts' Law (1954)
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Movement time increases when
- Increase distance bet. targets - Decrease width of targets Index of Difficulty |
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Latash & Jaric (2002)
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Index of Difficulty increased based on cup size and amount of liquid in cup
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Prehension
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3 Components:
1) Transport 2) Grasp 3) Object manipulation |
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Point of No Return
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In speed-accuracy, it is past the stop/inhibition signal
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Violations of the Speed-Accuracy Tradeoff
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1) Temporal accuracy (can movement be completed @ appropriate time)
--> Speed up move = decrease error --> Greater accuracy = quicker MT 2) Forceful Movements |
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Coincidence Anticipation
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Produce movements that require...
-Spatial accuracy -Temporal accuracy -Force -Speed |
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Coincidence Point
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Ideal place where movement coincides w/ object
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Tau
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Optic variable that determines time-to-contact
-Size of retinal image & rate of enlargement Faster enlargement = faster object is approaching |
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Hubbard & Seng (1954)
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Striking & role of vision
-Synchronize start of stride w/ pitch release -Initiate swing based on speed of pitch -Swing speed consistent **Vision used to control duration of stride & initiation of swing |
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Tau & Catching
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Phases of Catching:
1) Move arm & hand toward object 2) Shape hand 3) Grasp -Information needed in advance -Visual contact time w/ moving object --> Initial & final flight phase |
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Smyth & Marriott (1982)
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Vision of the Hands
- Hand-positioning erros - More expertise = less need to see hands |
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Role of Vision in Locomotion
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-Making contact w/ our feet
--> Tau used to make stride-length adjustments --> Gait regulation doesn't depend on expertise --> Visual cues for gait rehab. -Avoid obstacles --> Size of object, how solid it is --> Type of step-pattern alteration |