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284 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Accommodation
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Piaget’s changing existing knowledge based on new knowledge
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Age of viability
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age of a fetus where they can survive b/c most of its bodily systems function adequately; usually 7 months
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Alert inactivity
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state in which a baby is calm with eyes open & attentive; baby seems to be deliberately inspecting the environment
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Alleles
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variations of genes
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Altruism
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prosocial behavior such as helping and sharing in which the individual does not benefit directly from his or her behavior
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Amniocentesis
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prenatal diagnostic technique that involves withdrawing a sample of amniotic fluid through the abdomen with a syringe
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Amnion
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inner sac in which the developing child rests
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Amniotic fluid
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fluid that surrounds the fetus
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Analytic ability
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in Sternberg’s theory of intelligence, the ability to analyze problems and generate different solutions
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Animism
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crediting inanimate objects with life and lifelike properties such as feelings
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Assimilation
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according to Piaget, taking in information that is compatible with what one already knows
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Attachment
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enduring social-emotional relationship between infants and their caregivers
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Attention
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processes that determine which information will be processed further by an individual
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Authoritarian parenting
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parents who show high levels of control and low levels of warmth toward their children
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Authoritative parenting
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parents who use a moderate amt of control and are warm and responsive to their children
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Autobiographical memory
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memories of the significant events and experiences of one’s own life
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Autosomes
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first 22 pairs of chromosomes
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Average children
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as applied to children’s popularity, children who are liked and disliked by classmates, but with relatively little intensity
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Avoidant attachment
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relationship in which infants turn away from their mothers when they are reunited following a brief separation
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Axon
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tubelike structure that emerges from the cell body and transmits information to other neurons
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Babbling
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speechlike sounds that consist of vowel-consonant combinations
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Basic cry
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cry that starts softly and gradually becomes more intense; often heard when babies are hungry or tired
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Basic emotions
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emotions experienced by humankind and that consist of three elements; a subjective feeling, a physiological change, and an overt behavior
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Behavioral genetics
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the branch of genetics that studies the inheritance of behavioral and psychological traits
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Biological forces
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all genetic and health related factors that affect development
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Biopsychosocial framework
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view that integrates biological, psychological, sociocultural, and life-cycle forces on development
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Blended family
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family consisting of a biological parent, a stepparent, and children
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Cardinality principle
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counting principle that the last number name denotes the number of objects being counted
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Cell body
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center of the neuron that keeps the neuron alive
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Centration
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according to Piaget, narrowly focused type of thought characteristic of preoperational children
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Cephalocaudal principle
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a principle of physical growth that states that structures nearest the head develop first
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Cerebral cortex
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wrinkled surface of the brain that regulates many functions that are distinctly human
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Cesarean section
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surgical removal of infant from the uterus through an incision made in the mother’s abdomen
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Chorionic villius sampling
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prenatal diagnostic technique that involves taking a sample of tissue from the chorion
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Chromosomes
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threadlike structures in the nuclei of cells that contain genetic material
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Classical conditioning
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a form of learning that involves pairing a neutral stimulus and a response originally produced by another
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Clique
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small group of friends who are similar in age, sex, and race
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Cognitive self-regulation
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skill at identifying goals, selecting effective strategies, and accurate monitoring a characteristic of successful students
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Cohort effects
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differences between individuals that result from experiences and circumstances unique to a person’s particular generation
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Comprehension
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the process of extracting meaning from a sequence of words
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Cones
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specialized neurons in the back of the eye that sense color
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Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)
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genetic disorder in which girls are masculinized because the adrenal glands secrete large amounts of androgen during prenatal development
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Constricting actions
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one partner tries to emerge as the victor by threatening or contradicting the other
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Continuity-discontinuity issue
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issue concerned with whether a developmental phenomenon follows a smooth progression throughout the lifespan or a series of abrupt shifts
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Controversial children
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as applied to children’s popularity, children who are liked or disliked, intensely, by classmates
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Convergent thinking
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using information to arrive at one standard and correct answer
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Cooing
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early vowel-like sounds that babies produce
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Cooperative play
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play that is organized
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Core knowledge hypothesis
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infants are born with rudimentary knowledge of the world, which is elaborated based on experiences
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Corpus callosum
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thick bundle of neurons that connects the two hemispheres
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Correlation coefficient
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statistic that reveals the strength and direction of the relation between two variables
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Correlational study
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investigation looking at relations between variables as they exist naturally in the world
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Counterimitation
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learning what should not be done by observing the behavior
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Creative ability
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in Sternberg’s theory of intelligence, the ability to deal adaptively with novel situations and problems
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Cross-sectional study
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research design in which people of different ages are compared at one point in time
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Crowd
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large group including many cliques that have similar attitudes and values
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Crowning
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appearance of the top of the baby’s head during labor
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Crying
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state in which a baby cries vigorously, usually accompanied by agitated but uncoordinated movement
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Culture-fair intelligence tests
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intelligence tests devised using items common to many cultures
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Deductive reasoning
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drawing conclusions from facts; characteristic of formal operational thought
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Dendrite
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end of the neuron that receives information; it looks like a tree with many branches
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Deoxyribonucleic acid
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molecule composed of four nucleotide bases that is the biochemical basis of heredity
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Dependent variable
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behavior that is observed after other variables are manipulated
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Differentiation
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distinguishing and mastering individual motions
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Direct instruction
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telling a child what to do, when, and why
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Disinhibition
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form of observational learning in which all behaviors like those observed are more likely following observation
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Disorganized (disoriented) attachment
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relationship in which infants don’t seem to understand what’s happening when they are separated and later reunited with their mothers
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Divergent thinking
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thinking in novel and unusual directions
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Dizygotic twins
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result of the fertilization of two separate eggs by two sperm; fraternal twins
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Dominance hierarchy
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ordering of individuals within a group in which group members with lower status defer to those with greater status
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Dominant
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form of an allele whose chemical instructions are followed
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Doula
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person familiar with childbirth who provides emotional and physical support throughout labor and delivery
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Dynamic systems theory
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theory that views motor development as involving many distinct skills organized and reorganized over time to meet specific needs
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Dynamic testing
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measures learning potential by having a child learn something new in the presence of the examiner and with the examiner’s help
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Ecological theory
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view that human development cannot be separated from the environmental contexts in which development occurs
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Ectoderm
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outer layer of the embryo that will become the hair, outer layer of skin, and the nervous system
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Egocentrism
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difficulty in seeing the world from another’s point of view; typical of children in the preoperational period
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Elaboration
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memory strategy in which information is embellished to make it more memorable
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Electroencephalogram (EEG)
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pattern of brain waves recorded from electrodes that are placed on the scalp
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Embryo
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term given to the zygote once it is completely embedded in the uterine wall
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Emotional intelligence
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ability to use one’s own and others’ emotions effectively for solving problems and living happily
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Empathy
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experiencing another person’s feelings
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Enabling actions
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individuals’ actions and remarks that tend to support others and sustain the interaction
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Endoderm
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inner layer of the embryo, which will become the lungs and digestive system
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Epigenetic principle
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view in Erikson’s theory that each psychosocial stage has its own period of importance
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Equilibration
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according to Piaget, a process by which children reorganize their schemes to return to a state of equilibrium when disequilibrium occurs
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Eugenics
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effort to improve the human species by letting only people whose characteristics are valued by a society mate and pass along their genes
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Evolutionary psychology
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theoretical view that many human behaviors represent successful adaptations to the environment
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Exosystem
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social settings that influence one’s development even though one does not experience them firsthand
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Experiment
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systematic way of manipulating factors that a researcher thinks cause a particular behavior
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Expressive style
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language-learning style that describes children whose vocabularies include many social phrases that are used like one word
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Extremely low birth weight
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newborns who weigh less than 2 lbs
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Familial mental retardation
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form of mental retardation that does not involve biological damage but represents the low end of the normal distribution of intelligence
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Fast mapping
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fact that children make connections between new words and referents so quickly that they can’t be considering all possible meanings
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Fetal alcohol syndrome
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disorder affecting babies whose mothers consumed alcohol while pregnant
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Fetal medicine
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field of medicine concerned with treating prenatal problems before birth
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Fine motor skills
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motor skills associated with grasping, holding, and manipulating objects
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Friendship
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voluntary relationship between two people involving mutual liking
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Frontal cortex
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brain region that regulates personality and goal-directed behavior
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Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
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method of studying brain activity using a magnetic field to track blood flow in the brain
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Gender constancy
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understanding that maleness and femaleness do not change over situations or personal wishes
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Gender identity
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sense of oneself as male or female
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Gender labeling
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young children’s understanding that they are either boys or girls and naming themselves accordingly
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Gender stability
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understanding in preschool children that boys become men and girls become women
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Gender stereotypes
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beliefs and images about males and females that are not necessarily true
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Gender-schema theory
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theory that states that children first decide whether an object, activity, or behavior is female or male, then use this info to decide whether they should learn more about it
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Gene
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group of nucleotide bases that provide a specific set of biochemical instructions
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Genotype
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person’s hereditary makeup
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Germ disc
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small cluster of cells near the center of the zygote that will develop into a baby
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Grammatical morpheme
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words or endings of words that make a sentence grammatical
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Habituation
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becoming unresponsive to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly
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Hemispheres
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right and left halves of the cortex
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Heterozygous
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when the alleles differ from each other
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Homozygous
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when the chromosomes in a pair are the same
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Hope
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according to Erikson, an openness to new experience tempered by wariness that occurs when trust and mistrust are in balance
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Hostile aggression
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unprovoked aggression that seems to have the sole goal of intimidating, harassing, or humiliating another child
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Human development
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multidisciplinary scientific study of how people change and how they stay the same
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Huntington’s disease
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progressive and fatal type of dementia
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Hypoxia
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a birth complication in which blood flow is disrupted & the infant does not receive adequate oxygen
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Imitation (observational learning)
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learning that happens by watching those around us
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Implantation
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step in which the zygote borrows into the uterine wall and establishes connections with a woman’s blood vessels
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In vitro fertilization
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process by which sperm and an egg are mixed in a petri dish to create a zygote, which is then placed in a woman’s uterus
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Incomplete dominance
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situation in which one allele does not dominate another completely
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Independent variable
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factor that researchers manipulate in an experiment
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Infant mortality
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the number of infants out of 1,000 births who die before their first birthday
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Infant-directed speech
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way of speaking in which adults speak slowly and with exaggerated changes in pitch and loudness
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Information-processing theory
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view that human cognition consists of mental hardware and software
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Inhibition
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a decrease in an entire class of behaviors after children observe another person performing a specific behavior
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Instrumental aggression
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aggression used to achieve an explicit goal
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Integration
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linking individual motions in a coherent, coordinated whole
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Intelligence quotient (IQ)
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mathematical representation of how a person scores on an intelligence test in relation to how other people of the same age score
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Internal working model
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infant’s understanding of how responsive and dependable the mother is; thought to influence close relationships throughout the child’s life
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Intersensory redundancy
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infants’ sensory systems are attuned to information presented simultaneously to different sensory modes
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Irregular or rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
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irregular sleep in which an infant’s eyes dart rapidly beneath the eyelids while the body is quite active
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Joint custody
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after divorce, both parents share legal custody of their children
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Kinetic cues
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cues to depth perception in which motion is used to estimate depth
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Knowledge-telling strategy
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writing down information as it is retrieved from memory, a common practice for young writers
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Knowledge-transforming strategy
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deciding what information to include and how best to organize it to convey a point
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Learning disability
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when a child with normal intelligence has difficulty mastering at least one academic subject
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Life course perspective
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describes the ways in which various generations experience the biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces of development in their respective historical contexts
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Life-cycle forces
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differences in how the same event may affect people at different ages
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Life-span perspective
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view that development is determined by many biological, psychological, and social factors and that all parts of the lifespan are interrelated
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Linear perspective
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a cue to depth perception based on the fact that parallel lines come together at a single point in the distance
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Locomote
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ability to move around in the world
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Longitudinal study
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research design in which a single cohort is studied over multiple measurements
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Long-term memory
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permanent storehouse for memories that has unlimited capacity
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Low birth weight
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newborns who weigh less than 5 pounds
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Macrosystem
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the cultural and subcultural settings in which the Microsystems, mesosystems, and exosystems are embedded
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Mad cry
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more intense version of a basic cry
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Malnourished
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being small for one’s age because of inadequate nutrition
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Mental age (MA)
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in intelligence testing, a measure of children’s performance corresponding to the chronological age of those whose performance equals the child’s
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Mental hardware
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mental and neural structures that are built-in and that allow the mind to operate
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Mental operations
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cognitive actions that can be performed on objects or ideas
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Mental retardation
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substantially below-average intelligence and problems adapting to an environment that emerge before age of 18
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Mental software
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mental “programs” that are the basis for performing particular tasks
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Mesoderm
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middle layer of the embryo; becomes the muscles, bones, and circulatory system
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Mesosystem
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the interrelations between different microsystems
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Meta-analysis
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tool that allows researchers to synthesize the results of many studies to estimate relations between variables
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Metacognitive knowledge
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person’s knowledge and awareness of cognitive processes
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Metamemory
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person’s informal understanding of memory; includes the ability to diagnose memory problems accurately and to monitor the effectiveness of memory strategies
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Microsystem
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the people and objects that are present in one’s immediate environment
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Monozygotic twins
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identical twins-same egg
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Motion parallax
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kinetic cue to depth perception based on the fact that nearby moving objects move across our visual field faster than distant objects do
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Motor skills
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coordinated movements of the muscles and limbs
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Myelin
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fatty sheath that wraps around neurons to permit them to transmit info more rapidly
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Naturalistic observation
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form of systematic observation in which people are observed as they behave spontaneously in some real-life situation
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Nature-nurture issue
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issue genetics versus environmental factors development
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Negative reinforcement trap
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unwittingly reinforcing a behavior you want to discourage
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Neglected children
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children who are ignored by their classmates, being neither liked nor disliked
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Neural plate
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flat group of cells present in prenatal development that becomes the brain and the spinal cord
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Neuron
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basic cell unit of the brain and nervous system that specializes in receiving and transmitting info
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Neuroplasticity
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extent to which brain organization is flexible
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Neurotransmitter
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chemicals released by the terminal buttons that allow neurons to communicate with each other
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Niche-picking
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process of deliberately seeking environments that are compatible with one’s genetic makeup
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Night terrors
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state of partial consciousness associated with panic, rapid breathing, and heavy perspiration; may result from waking rapidly from a deep sleep
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Nightmares
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vivid, frightening dreams that occur toward morning and wake the child
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Nonshared environmental influences
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forces within a family that make siblings different from one another
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Object permanence
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understanding, acquired in infancy, that objects exist independently of oneself
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One-to-one principle
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counting principle that states that there must be one and only one number name for each object counted
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Operant conditioning
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view of learning by B.F. Skinner, that emphasizes reward and punishment
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Ordinality
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numbers that differ in magnitude with some values greater than others
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Organic mental retardation
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mental retardation that can be traced to a specific biological or physical problem
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Organization
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memory-a strategy in which info to be remembered is structured so that related info is placed together
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Orienting response
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individual fixes eyes on a strong or unfamiliar stimulus and changes in heart rate and brainwave activity occur
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Overextension
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when children define words more broadly than adults do
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Overregularization
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grammatical usage that results from applying rules to words that are exceptions to the rule
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Pain cry
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cry that begins with a sudden long burst, followed by a long pause and gasping
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Parallel play
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when children play alone but are aware of and interested in what another child is doing
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Perception
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processes by which the brain receives, selects, modifies, and organizes incoming nerve impulses that are the result of physical stimulation
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Period of the fetus
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longest period of prenatal development, extending from the 9th until the 38th week after conception
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Permissive parenting
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style of parenting that offers warmth and caring but little parental control over children
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Phenotype
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physical, behavioral, and psychological features that result from the interaction one’s genes and the environment
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Phenylketonuria
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inherited disorder in which the infant lacks a liver enzyme
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Phonemes
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unique speech sounds that can be used to create words
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Phonological awareness
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the ability to hear the distinctive sounds of letters
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Phonological memory
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ability to remember speech sounds briefly; an important skill in acquiring vocabulary
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Pictorial cues
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cues to depth perception used to convey depth in pictures
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Placenta
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structure through which nutrients and wastes are exchanged between the mother and developing child
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Polygenic inheritance
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when phenotypes are the result of the combined activity of many separate genes
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Popular children
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children who are liked by many classmates
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Population
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broad group of people that is the focus of research
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Practical ability
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in Sternberg’s theory of intelligence, the ability to know solutions to problems are likely to work
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Prejudice
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a view of other people, usually negative, that is based on their membership in a specific group
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Prenatal development
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the many changes that turn a fertilized egg into a newborn human
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Preterm (premature)
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babies born before the 36th week after conception
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Private speech
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comments that are not intended for others but serve the purpose of helping children regulate their behavior
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Propositions
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ideas derived by combining words
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Prosocial behavior
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any behavior that benefits another person
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Proximodistal principle
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principle of physical growth that states that structures nearest the center of the body develop first
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Psychodynamic theories
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theories in which human behavior is said to be guided by motives and drives that are internal and often unconscious
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Psychological forces
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all internal perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and personality factors that affect development
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Psychometricians
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psychologists who specialize in measuring psychological traits such as intelligence and personality
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Psychosocial theory
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Erikson-theory in which personality development results from the interaction of maturation and societal demands
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Punishment
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applying an aversive stimulus (spanking) or removing an attractive stimulus
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Purpose
|
Erikson-balance between individual initiative and the willingness to cooperate with others
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Reaction range
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a genotype is manifested in reaction to the environment where development takes place, so a single genotype can lead to a range of phenotypes
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Recessive
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allele whose instructions are ignored when it is combined with a dominant allele
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Referential style
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language-learning style that describes children whose vocabularies are dominated by names of objects, persons, or actions
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Reflexes
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unlearned responses triggered by specific stimulation
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Regular (nonREM) sleep
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sleep in which heart rate, breathing, and brain activity are steady
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Reinforcement
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consequence that increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated in the future
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Rejected children
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children who are disliked by many classmates
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Relational aggression
|
aggression used to hurt others by undermining their social relationships
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Reliability
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when test scores are consistent from 1 testing time to another
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Resistant attachment
|
relationship after a brief separation infants want to be held but are different to console
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Retinal disparity
|
way to infer depth based on differences in the retinal images in the left and right eyes
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Sample
|
subset of a population
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Savants
|
individuals with mental retardation who are extremely talented in one domain
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Scaffolding
|
teaching style in which adults adjust the amount of assistance that they offer, based on the learner’s needs
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Scheme
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Piaget- a mental structure that organizes info and regulates behavior
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Secure attachment
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relationship in which infants have come to trust and depend on their mothers
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Selective optimization with compensation model
|
a model of successful adaptation to aging that emphasizes selection of goals, followed by efforts to maintain or enhance those chosen goals
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Self reports
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people’s answers to questions about the topic of interest
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Self-efficacy
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belief that one is capable of performing a certain task
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Sensorimotor period
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1st of Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development, which lasts from birth to approximately 2 years
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Sequential design
|
complex research design consisting of multiple cross-sectional or longitudinal designs
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Sex chromosomes
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23rd pair of chromosomes; determines sex of child
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Sickle-cell trait
|
disorder that shows mild signs of anemia when they are deprived of oxygen; occurs in people who have one dominant allele for normal blood cells and one recessive sickle-cell allele
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Simple social play
|
play that begins at about 15 to 18 months; kids engage in similar activities, talk and smile at each other
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Sleeping
|
state as a baby alternates from being still and breathing regularly to moving gently and breathing irregularly and in which the eyes are closed throughout
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Sleepwalking
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people’s answers to questions about the topic of interest
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Social cognitive theory
|
view that thinking, as well as direct reinforcement and punishment, plays an important part in shaping behavior
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Social referencing
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behavior in which infants in unfamiliar environments often look at their mother or father, as if searching for cues to help them interpret the situation
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Social role
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set of cultural guidelines about how one should behave, especially with other people
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Social smiles
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smile that infants produce when they see a human face
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Socialization
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teaching children the values, roles, and behaviors of their culture
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Sociocultural forces
|
all interpersonal, societal, cultural, and ethnic factors that influence development
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Spina bifida
|
disorder in which the embryo’s neural tube does not close property
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Stable-order principle
|
counting principle that states that number names must always be counted in the same order
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Stem cells
|
unspecialized human or animal cells that can produce mature specialized body cells and at the same time replicate themselves
|
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Stereotype threat
|
an evoked fear of being judged in accordance with a negative stereotype about a group to which you belong
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Stranger wariness
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first distinct signs of fear that emerge around 6 months of age when infants become wary in the presence of unfamiliar
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Stress
|
physical and psychological responses to threatening or challenging conditions
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Structured observations
|
setting created by a researcher that is particularly likely to elicit the behavior of interest so that it can be observed
|
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Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
|
situation in which a healthy baby dies suddenly for no apparent reason
|
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Synaptic pruning
|
gradual reduction in the number of synapses, beginning in infancy and continuing until early adolescence
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|
Systematic observation
|
involves watching people and carefully recording what they say or do
|
|
Telegraphic speech
|
speech used by young children that contains only the words that are necessary to get a message across
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Temperament
|
consistent style of pattern of behavior
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Teratogen
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agent that causes abnormal prenatal development
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Terminal button
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small knobs at the end of the axon that release neurotransmitters
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Texture gradient
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perceptual cue to depth based on the fact that the texture of objects changes from coarse but distinct for nearby objects to finer and less distinct for distant objects
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Theory
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organized set of ideas that explains development
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Theory of mind
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ideas about connections between thoughts, beliefs, intentions, and behavior that create an intuitive understanding of the link between mind and behavior
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Time-out
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punishment for misbehaving to be quiet in an unstimulating environment
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Toddler
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young child who have learned to walk
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Toddling
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early, unsteady form of walking done by infants
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Ultrasound
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prenatal diagnostic technique that bounces sound waves off the fetus to generate an image of the fetus
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Umbilical cord
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structure containing veins and arteries that connects the developing child to the placenta
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Underextension
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when children define words more narrowly than adults do
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Uninvolved parenting
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style of parenting that provides neither warmth nor control and that minimizes the amount time parents spend with kids
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Universal versus context-specific development issue
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issue of whether there is one path of development or several
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Validity
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as applied to tests, the extent to which the test measures what it is supposed to measure
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Vernix
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substance that protects the fetus’s skin during development
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Very low birth weight
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newborns who weigh less than 3 lbs
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visual acuity
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smallest pattern that one can distinguish reliably
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visual cliff
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glass-covered platform that appears to have a “shallow” side and “deep” side; used to study infants’ depth perception
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Visual expansion
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kinetic cue to depth perception that refers to the fact that as an object moves closer it fills an evergreater proportion of the retina
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Waking activity
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state in which a baby’s eyes are open but unfocused and the limbs move in bursts of uncoordinated motion
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Will
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Erikson- a young child’s understanding that he or she can act on the world intentionally, which occurs when autonomy, shame, and doubt are in balance
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Word recognition
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the process of identifying a unique pattern of letters
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Working memory
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type of memory in which a small number of items can be stored briefly
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Zone of proximal development
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difference with what children can do alone & with help
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Zygote
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fertilized egg
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