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140 Cards in this Set
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Decrease or shrinkage in cell & organ size. (ex. skeletal muscle deprived of innervation) |
Atrophy |
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Increase in the size of cells & organ. (ex. skeletal & cardiac muscle) |
Hypertrophy |
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Increase in number of cells. (ex. liver enlarges to compensate if parts is removed & breasts enlarge due to hormonal signals during pregnancy) |
Hyperplasia |
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Reversible replacement of one mature cell type by another cell type. It can progress to dysplasia & neoplasia (cancer). (ex. in the bronchi smoking can cause pseudostratified ciliated columnar ep. to change stratified squamous ep.) |
Metaplasia |
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Abnormal changes in size, shape & organization of mature cells. Not a true adaptive change. Due to persistent severe irritation. Often reversible if stimulus is removed. Can progress to neoplasia. (ex. cervical dysplasia due to human papillomavirus) |
Dysplasia |
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Cells can recover if injurious stimuli ceases |
Reversible |
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Cells die due to injury |
Irreversible |
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Due to lack of sufficient oxygen, usually from ischemia. |
Hypoxic Injury |
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Reduced blood supply; if gradual, then adaptation can occur. (ex. a growing thrombus which gradually blocks a vessel) |
Ischemia |
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Total lack of oxygen. This is not well tolerated by most tissues. (ex. an embolus which lodges in a vessel) |
Anoxia |
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Cellular Response: Lack of oxygen impairs cellular respiration. Results in failure of sodium-potassium pump & sodium-calcium exchange. Decreased protein synthesis & decreased membrane transport. |
Decreased ATP levels |
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Sodium & Calcium accumulate _____ |
Inside cells |
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Potassium accumulates _____ |
Outside cells |
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Due to movement of sodium into cells |
Cellular Swelling |
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If oxygen is not restored, _____ accumulates in the cytoplasm |
Vacuoles |
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Membrane-bound spheres that may contain fluid, lipids or other materials. |
Vacuoles |
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Cellular Response: Organelles swell causing ribosomes to detach from the endoplasmic reticulum. Swelling may lead to rupture of lysosomes. |
Vacuolation |
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Cellular Response: Due to swelling which damages mitochondrial membrane. Changes in membrane permeability. Loss of membrane potential. Decreased ATP production. |
Mitochondrial damage |
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Between the outer & inner membranes of the mitochondria are proteins that can activate the cell's suicide pathways, called _____ |
Apoptosis |
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Cellular Response: Normally intracellular cytosolic calcium concentrations are very low. Ischemia & certain chemicals cause an increase in cytosolic Calcium concentrations. Calcium causes intracellular damage by activating a number of enzymes that further deplete ATP levels & cause membrane & DNA damage. |
Accumulation of Calcium |
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Damage is irreversible when there is: |
Severe swelling of the mitochondria Severe damage to plasma membranes Rupture of lysosomes & release of lysosomal enzymes Cells may undergo either necrosis or apoptosis, depending on the cause |
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Electrically uncharged atom or group of atoms having an unpaired electron. |
Free radicals & reactive oxygen species. |
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Damages membranes of cell & organelles, increases permeability |
Lipid peroxidation |
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Especially those for ion pumps & transport proteins |
Alteration of proteins |
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Fragmenting of DNA reduces protein synthesis |
Alteration of DNA |
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Allows liberation of calcium into cytosol |
Mitochondrial damage |
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Ionizing radiation can knock electrons out or orbit. This produces free radicals. |
Radiation |
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CHEMICAL INJURY Liver converts this to a toxic free radical. Causes lipid peroxidation. These result in fatty liver, cellular autodigestion & decreased ATP production. |
Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) |
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CHEMICAL INJURY Neurological problems (interferes with neurotransmitter release). Causes anemia & renal problems. |
Lead |
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CHEMICAL INJURY Prevents oxygen from binding to hemoglobin. Causes cherry red coloring of skin. |
Carbon monoxide |
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CHEMICAL INJURY Acetaldehyde & free radicals in liver. Causes inflammation, fatty liver, membrane damage. Depresses CNS by acting on reticular formation which normally inhibits unacceptable behaviours. |
Ethanol |
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CHEMICAL INJURY Causes birth defects & brain damage in fetuses & small children. |
Mercury |
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A term which defines a development of cancer or pre-cancerous |
Dysplasia |
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TIA |
Transient Ischemic Attack |
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Tends to accumulate endogenous materials of the cell |
Complex substrate |
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Application of mechanical energy to the body resulting in the tearing, shearing, or crushing of tissues. |
Blunt force injuries |
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BLUNT FORCE INJURIES "Bruise", release of blood into tissues from damaged vessels without break in skin |
Contusion |
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BLUNT FORCE INJURIES A collection of blood in soft tissues or an enclosed space, subdural space, etc. |
Hematoma |
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BLUNT FORCE INJURIES "Scrape", removal of the superficial layers of skin due to friction |
Abrasion |
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BLUNT FORCE INJURIES A rip or tear of the skin; irregular edges |
Laceration |
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BLUNT FORCE INJURIES An extreme laceration |
Avulsion |
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BLUNT FORCE INJURIES Breakage of bone tissue |
Fractures |
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SHARP INJURIES A cut that is longer than it is deep |
Incised wounds |
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SHARP INJURIES A penetrating sharp-force injury that is deeper than that is long |
Stab wounds |
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SHARP INJURIES Caused by pointed objects without sharp edges |
Puncture wounds |
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SHARP INJURIES Caused by axes, hatches, propeller blades, etc. |
Chopping wounds |
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GUNSHOT WOUNDS Usually have an abrasion collar |
Entrance wounds |
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GUNSHOT WOUNDS Muzzle touching skin, blow-back & muzzle imprint |
Contract range entrance wound |
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GUNSHOT WOUNDS Muzzle not touching skin; less than 48 inches away. |
Intermediate range entrance wound |
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GUNSHOT WOUNDS
Fragments of gunpowder driven into skin or cause abrasion |
Tattooing & stippling |
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Caused by a failure of cells to receive or use oxygen |
Asphyxial injuries |
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ASPHYXIAL INJURIES Caused by lack of oxygen in environment or blockage of external airways |
Suffocation |
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ASPHYXIAL INJURIES Blockage of internal airways |
Chocking asphyxiation |
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ASPHYXIAL INJURIES
Caused by compression & closure of blood vessels & air passageway by external pressure. Death due to lack of blood flow to brain. |
Strangulation |
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ASPHYXIAL INJURIES Caused by suspension |
Hanging |
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ASPHYXIAL INJURIES Caused by cord around neck |
Ligature |
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ASPHYXIAL INJURIES Caused by hands |
Manual strangulation |
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ASPHYXIAL INJURIES Prevent delivery or utilization of oxygen in tissues. |
Chemical asphyxiants |
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ASPHYXIAL INJURIES prevents oxygen binding to cytochrome oxidase in mitochondria, causing cherry red coloring like CO poisoning. |
Cyanide |
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ASPHYXIAL INJURIES Alteration of oxygen delivery due to breathing fluid into lungs. |
Drowning |
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Pathogenicity of a microorganism |
Infectious injury |
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INFECTIOUS INJURY Disease-producing potential depends on organisms ability for: |
Invasion & destruction Toxin production Production of hypersensitivity reactions |
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Pathologic accumulations can occur due to: |
1. Excess production of normal substance 2. The substance not being broken down due to lack of an enzyme 3. Accumulation of harmful exogenous substances |
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CELLULAR ACCUMULATIONS: Enters cells due to lack of ATP & failure of Sodium-Potassium pump, causing cellular swelling. |
Water |
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CELLULAR ACCUMULATIONS:
(Hydropic degeneration) Water accumulates in endoplasmic reticulum forming vacuoles separate from cytoplasm. Visually the organs appear pale. |
Oncosis |
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CELLULAR INJURY MECHANISMS
Reperfusion injury due to |
Oxidative stress |
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CELLULAR INJURY MECHANISMS When oxygen is restored, reactive oxygen intermediates damage organelles. Can be prevented using antioxidants. |
Reperfusion injury |
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Involves phagocytic cells, immune & inflammatory substances, & membrane alterations |
Immunologic & Inflammatory Injury |
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IMMUNOLOGIC & INFLAMMATORY INJURY Cause leakage of potassium out of cell & influx of sodium & water |
Membrane alterations |
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Can trigger immune attack & lysis |
Antibodies |
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Stored form of glucose |
Glycogen |
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Formation of glycogen |
Glycogenesis |
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Breakdown of glycogen |
Glycogenolysis |
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Organ that performs glycogenesis |
Liver |
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It is a clinical disturbance defined by a pH less than 7.35 & a low HC03 level |
Metabolic acidosis |
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Accumulate (usually in spleen, liver & CNS) due to metabolic disorders like Tay-Sachs & Niemann-Pick disease |
Lipids & Carbohydrates |
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Can be caused by disruptions of normal lipid metabolism. |
Fatty change |
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Occurs in disorders of glucose & glycogen metabolism. Includind diabetes mellitus. |
Glycogen |
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Accumulate during pathological change in renal tubes & B lymphocytes |
Proteins |
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During glomerular disorders that cause proteinuria |
Renal tubes |
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Excess antibodies form in multiple myeloma cells |
B lymphocytes |
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Accumulation may be normal or signal pathological changes |
Pigments |
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A pigment where: Normal - suntan Pathologic - melanoma |
Melanin |
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A pigment where: Pathologic: Bruising & Jaundice |
Hemoproteins, hemosiderin & bilirubin (from RBC breakdown) |
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Occurs due to hypoxia or excess levels of calcium |
Calcium |
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Occurs in dying & dead tissues, advanced atherosclerosis, etc. |
Dystrophic calcification |
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Mineral deposits that occur in undamaged normal tissues as the result of hypercalcemia |
Metastatic calcification |
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Due to increased levels of uric acid from purine catabolism |
Urate |
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CELLULAR DEATH Cellular dissolution. Sum of cellular changes after local cell death & the process of cellular autodigestion. |
Necrosis |
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CELLULAR DEATH PROCESSES |
Karyolysis Pyknosis Karyorrhexis |
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CELLULAR DEATH PROCESS Nuclear dissolution & chromatin lysis |
Karyolysis |
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CELLULAR DEATH PROCESS Clumping of the nucleus |
Pyknosis |
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CELLULAR DEATH PROCESS Fragmentation of the nucleus |
Karyorrhexis |
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Substrate + Enzyme = ? |
Products |
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Produces sodium |
Osmotic pressure |
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Produces albumin |
Oncotic pressure |
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Stiffening/hardening of artery; more general term that describes the hardened arteries; lessen elasticity |
Arteriosclerosis |
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Lipid accumulation; narrowing of artery because of lack formation; under of arteriosclerosis |
Atherosclerosis |
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Occurs in kidneys, heart & adrenal glands. |
Coagulative Necrosis |
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Results from hypoxia caused by severe ischemia or chemical injury (ex. mercuric chloride intake) |
Protein denaturation |
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Occurs in neurons & glial cells of the brain Bacterial infection: Staphylococci, streptococci & E.coli |
Liquefactive Necrosis |
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From lysozyme in dying cells |
Hydrolytic enzymes |
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Occurs in tuberculosis pulmonary infection. Combination of coagulative & liquefactive necrosis. Cells disintegrate but are not completely digested. |
Caseous Necrosis |
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Occurs in breast, pancreas, & other organs that have lipases enzyme |
Fat Necrosis |
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Releases free fatty acids that react with calcium, magnesium & sodium |
Action of lipases |
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Causing death of tissue from severe hypoxic injury & Gas gangrene |
Gangrenous Necrosis |
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Often due to atherosclerosis or trauma |
Death of tissue from severe hypoxic injury |
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Coagulative |
Dry gangrene |
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Liquefactive necrosis (internal organs) |
Wet gangrene |
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Bacteria produce hydrolytic enzymes & create gas bubbles in muscles |
Gas gangrene |
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Anaerobic bacteria responsible for gas gangrene |
Clostridium |
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Death of unnecessary cells due to action of enzymes produces within cell |
Apoptosis |
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Prevents overgrowth of cells |
Programmed cellular death |
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Can cause overgrowth of cells, resulting in cancer |
Defects in apoptosis |
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Physiologic of Apoptosis include: |
During embryonic development As a result of hormonal changes In nutrient deprived tissues |
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Pathologic of Apoptosis include: |
Severe cell injury Accumulation of misfolded proteins Viral infections Obstruction of tissue ducts |
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Remains bound in a membrane forming apoptotic bodies which are removed by neutrophils & macrophages |
Cellular debris |
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Due to damage from exogenous injury. Usually involves many cells in area of injury. Cell membranes rupture, releasing cell contents into tissue. Triggers inflammatory response. |
Necrosis |
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AGING & ALTERED CELLULAR & TISSUE BIOLOGY Time-dependent loss of structure & function that proceeds slowly due to accumulated small injuries |
Aging |
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AGING & ALTERED CELLULAR & TISSUE BIOLOGY Abnormal dysfunction due to injury |
Disease |
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AGING & ALTERED CELLULAR & TISSUE BIOLOGY Across culture the maximal life span is 80-100 years. |
Normal life span |
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AGING & ALTERED CELLULAR & TISSUE BIOLOGY Females have a life expectancy about 5 years greater than males. |
Gender differences |
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3 THEORIES & MECHANISMS OF AGING |
1. Genetic & Environmental-Lifestyle Factors 2. Alterations of cellular control mechanisms 3. Degenerative extracellular & vascular changes |
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THEORIES & MECHANISMS OF AGING Programmed aging, Somatic mutation hypothesis & Catastrophic or error-prone theory are under of? |
Genetic & Environmental-Lifestyle Factors |
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THEORIES & MECHANISMS OF AGING Cells have a finite lifespan with a finite number of possible divisions, after which the DNA loses the capacity for mitosis |
Programmed aging |
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THEORIES & MECHANISMS OF AGING Repetitive injury to the DNA causes progressive mutations that interfere with the ability of the cell to repair itself & maintain DNA & protein synthesis |
Somatic mutation hypothesis |
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THEORIES & MECHANISMS OF AGING The enzymes responsible for transcription & translation become increasingly abnormal, leading to increasing errors in protein synthesis |
Catastrophic or error-prone theory |
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THEORIES & MECHANISMS OF AGING Neuroendocrine theory & Immune theory are under of? |
Alterations of cellular control mechanisms |
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THEORIES & MECHANISMS OF AGING The genetic program for aging is encoded in the brain & is controlled & relayed to peripheral tissues through hormonal & neural signals |
Neuroendocrine theory |
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THEORIES & MECHANISMS OF AGING With aging, there is decreased immunity to invades & cancer & increased autoimmunity (immune system attacks self) |
Immune theory |
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THEORIES & MECHANISMS OF AGING Binding of collagen, free radical effects (oxidative stress) & alterations in peripheral blood vessels are under of? |
Degenerative extracellular & vascular changes |
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THEORIES & MECHANISMS OF AGING Crosslinking, decreased synthesis & increased breakdown of collagen |
Binding of collagen |
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THEORIES & MECHANISMS OF AGING Damage to DNA; malignancies & cell death |
Free radical effects (oxidative stress) |
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THEORIES & MECHANISMS OF AGING Decreased vessel integrity & atherosclerosis |
Alterations in peripheral blood vessels |
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Consists of Cellular aging, tissue & systemic aging, & Frailty |
Aging |
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Characterized by atrophy, decreased function, & loss of cells |
Cellular aging |
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Every physiologic process declines in efficiency with age |
Tissue & systemic aging |
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Arterial, pulmonary, & musculoskeletal systems |
Progressive stiffness & rigidity |
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Loss of muscle mass & strength |
Sarcopenia |
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Decreased mobility, balance, muscle strength, motor activity, cognition, nutrition, endurance & bone density result in increased falls 7 fractures. Accompanied by declining hormone levels & increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines |
Frailty |
