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90 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
disolved gasses
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gas content effects mobility
-violence of eruption is related to how easily gases escape from magma 1-6% by weight -mainly H2O and CO2 |
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basaltic lava flows
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pahoehoe- twisted, ropey (hawaii)
aa- rough, jagged, blocky |
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ash and dust
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fine, glassy fragments of pyroclastic material
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lapilli
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walnut size pyroclastic material
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pumice
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porous rock from "frothy" lava, pyroclastic material
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cinders
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pea-sized pyroclastic material
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blocks and bombs
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larger than lapilli, pyroclastic material
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crater
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summit depression less than 1 km in diameter
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caldera
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summit depression greater than 1 km in diameter
-produced by collapsing after eruption |
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vent
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surface opening connected to the magma chamber
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fumarole
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emit only gases and smoke
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shield volcano
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-broad, slightly dome shaped
-generally covers large areas -produced by mild eruptions (mauna loa on hawaii) |
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cinder cone
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-built from ejected lava fragments
-steep slope angle -small size -frequently occurs in groups |
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composite cone (stratovolcano)
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-located adjacent to Pacific Ocean
-large, classic shaped -composed of interbedded lava flows and pyroclastic debris -most violent type of activity (vesuvius, st. helens) |
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nuee ardente
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deadly pyroclastic flow
-hot gasses and ash -glowing avalanche -200 km per hour |
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lahar
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volcanic mudflow
-mixture of debris and water -moves down stream valleys and slopes, destructive results |
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pyroclastic flow
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-felsic and intermediate magmas
-ash, pumice, other debris -ejected at high velocity (yellowstone plateau) |
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fissure eruptions and lava plateaus
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fluid basaltic lava extruded from crustal fractures called fissures
(columbia river plateau) |
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lava domes
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-bulbous mass of congealed lava
-associated with explosive eruptions of gas-rich magma |
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volcanic pipes
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short conduits that connect magma chambers to the surface
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volcanic necks
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resistant vents left standing after erosion has removed the volcanic cone
(ship rock, new mexico) |
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dikes and batholiths
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cut through preexisting rocks
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latholiths and sills
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parallel beding
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pluton
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cooled, solidified magman at depth of Earth
-tabular(sheetlike) shape vs. massive -concordant vs. discordant |
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dike
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tabular, discordant pluton
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sill
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tabular, concordant pluton
(palisades sill in NY) -intrusive igneous feature |
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laccolith
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similar to sills
-lens or mushroom shape -arches overlying strata upward -intrusive igneous feature |
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batholith
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-largest intrusive body
-surface exposure > 100 + km2 -core of mountains -intrusive igneous feature -lots in the west coast |
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subduction zones
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-occur in conjunction with deep oceanic trenches
-partially melting of plate and upper mantle -can form island or volcano -Ring of Fire |
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inter plate volcanism
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-occurs within a tectonic plate
-associated with mantle plumes -localized volcanic regions in the overriding plate are hotspots |
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weathering
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physical breakdown and chemical alteration of rock at Earths surface
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decomposition
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chemical breakdown of weathering
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disintegration
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physical breakdown of weathering
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mass wasting
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the transfer of rock and soil downslope under the influence of gravity
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erosion
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the physical removal of material by mobile agents such as water, wind, ice, or gravity
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mechanical weathering
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breaking of rocks into smaller pieces
-frost wedging -unloading -thermal expansion -biological activity |
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chemical weathering
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breaking down of rocks components and internal structure of minerals
-most important agent is water (responsible for transport of ions and molecules) |
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dissolution
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chemical weathering aided by small amounts of acid in the water
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oxidation
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chemical weathering when any reaction where electrons are lost from one element
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hydrolysis
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chemical weathering where the reaction of any substance with water and hydrogen ions attack and replace other ions
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soil
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combination of mineral and organic matter, water and air
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regolith
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rock and mineral fragments produced by weathering that supports plant growth
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factors controlling soil formation
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-parent material
-time -climate (precipitation and temp) -plants and animals -topography |
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E horizon
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little organic matter
-eluviation and leaching |
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B horizon
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zone of accumlation
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C horizon
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partially altered parent material
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O horizon
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organic matter
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A horizon
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organic and mineral matter
-high biological activity |
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soil taxonomy
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-emphasis is placed on physical and chemical properties
-six hierarchal categories exist -latin and greek names -12 basic soil orders are recognized |
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soil erosion
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part of natural recycling
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sedimentary rocks
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products of mechanical and chemical weathering
5% of Earth by volume -often contain fossils |
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digenesis
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chemical, physical and biological changes that take place after sediments are deposited
occurs in earths crust |
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recrystalization
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development of more stable minerals from less stable ones
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lithification
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sediments are transformed into solid rock by compaction and cementation
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natural cements
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calcite, silica, iron oxide
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detrial rocks
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transported sediment as solid particles, particle size used to distinguish among various types of rocks
-clay minerals -quartz -feldspars -micas |
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chemical rocks
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sediment that was once in solution
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shale
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mid-sized particles in thin layers that are commonly referred to as laminea
-most common sedimentary rock |
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sandstone
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-composed of sand-sized particles
-forms in variety of environments -quartz is predominant mineral |
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conglomerate and breccia
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-both are composed of particles greater than 2mm in diameter
-large round gravels for conglomerate -breccia is mainly large angular parts |
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limestone
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most abundant chemical sedimentary rock
-coral reefs, coquina, chalk -travertine and oolitic limestones |
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dolostone
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chemical sedimentary rock, formed secondarily from limestone
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chert
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microcrystalline quartz, flint, jasper, agate
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evaporties
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evaporation triggers deposition of chemical precipitate, rock salt and gypsum
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coal
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chemical sedimentary rock, organic material
1.plant material 2. peat 3. lignite 4. bituminous |
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clastic
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discrete fragments and particles
-detrial are ALL clastic |
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nonclastic
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-pattern of interlocking crystals
-may resemble an igneous rock |
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continental environment
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-dominated by stream erosion and deposition
-glacia -wind |
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marine environment
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shallow, about 200 meters
-deep (seaward of continental shelves) |
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transitional environment
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shoreline, tidal flats, lagoons, deltas
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sedimentary facies
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-different sediments often accumulate adjacent to one another at the same time
-distinctive characteristics -merging of adjacent facies is gradual |
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types of sedimentary structures
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-strata, beds (most)
-bedding planes that separate strata -cross-bedding -graded beds -ripple marks -mud cracks -fossils |
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renewable resources
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can be replenished over relatively short time spans
-plants, animals for food, trees for lumber |
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nonrenewable resources
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significant deposits take millions of years to form
-fuels, coal, oil, gas -metals, iron, copper, uranium, gold |
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types of gas traps
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-anticlinal
-fault -stratigraphic |
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urban air pollution
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air pollutants are airborne particles and gases that occur in concentrations that endanger the health of organisms and disrupt the orderly functioning environment
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primary pollutants
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emitted directly from identifiable sources
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secondary pollutants
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formed when chemical reactions take place among primary pollutants
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greenhouse effect
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atmosphere is transparent to incoming short wavelength solar radiation. The ongoing long-wave radiation emitted by Earth is absorbed in the lower atmosphere, keeping air near the ground warmer
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tar sands
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mixtures of clay and sand combined with water and bitumen (viscous tar)
-several substantial deposits around the world -obtaining oil from tar has drawbacks |
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oil shale
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contains enormous amounts of untapped oil
-not worth mining because of markets and technology |
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alternatives to energy sources
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-nuclear
-solar -wind |
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magmatic segregation
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separation of heavy minerals that crystalize early or rare elements melt
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diamonds
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originate at great depths
-crystals are disseminated in ultramafic rock called kimberlite |
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hydrothermal solutions
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-best known and important ore deposits
-majority from hot, metal rich fluids --move along fractures, cools and -precipitates the metallic ions to produce vein deposits |
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produced by contact metamorphism
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-sphalerite (zinc)
-galena (lead) -chalcopyrite (copper) |
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produced by regional metamorphism
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-talc
-graphite |
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secondary enrichment
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concertrating metals into economically valuable concentrations
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bauxite
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-principal ore of aluminum
-forms in rainy tropical climates from chemical weathering and the removal of undesirable elements by leaching |
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placers
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-deposits formed when heavy metals are mechanically concentrated by currents
-involved heavy and durable minerals (gold, platinum, diamonds) |