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89 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
chemical bonds
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make molecules and compounds, number of bonds possible is determined by number of valence electrons
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covalent bond
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two atoms share electrons
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polar bonds
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electrons shared unequally
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nonpolar
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electrons shared equally
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OH
CO COOH NH2 SH PO4 |
hydroxyl
carbonyl carboxyl amino sulfhydryl phosphate |
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OH
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Hydroxyl
/polar group /water soluble /called alcohols /ie. ethanol |
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CO
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Carbonyl
/carbon atom double bonded to oxygen /water soluble /in sugars |
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COOH
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Carboxyl
/oxygen double bonded to carbon double bonded to hydroxide /water soluble /acidic properties |
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NH2
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Amino
/polar /water soluble /weak base |
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SH
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Sulfhydryl
/stabilizes proteins via disulfide bridges /thiols |
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Characteristics of water
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/solvent
/high surface tension (cohesion) /solid, liquid, gas /expands when freezes |
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facilitated diffusion
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ie. ion channel
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carbs
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/most abundant organic compound in nature
/sugar and starch with C,H,O ratio of 1:2:1 /ie. glucose / |
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starch
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/main carb reserve of plants (branched, unbranched, coiled)
/major carb source for animals /potatoes, wheat, rice /alpha 1,4 bonds between glucose /(C6H10O5)n |
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cellulose
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/ (C6H10O5)n
/3000 to 10000 unbranched, linear, main structural polymer, microfbrils /Cotton almost all cellulose also found in plant cell walls |
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chitin
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/fungal cell walls and insect exoskeltons
/polymers of nitrogenous glucose |
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lipids
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long chain hydrocarbons - oxygen on one end
don't mix well with water high energy density waxes, energy storage in seeds, /fatty or oily substances that are mostly insoluble in water /Fats are solid at room temperature(compact, animals) /Oil are liquid at room temperature(seeds, compact vs. starch) /Typically store twice as much energy as carbohydrates(higher portion of carbon – hydrogen bonds) /Most consist of chain with 16-18 carbon atoms /Saturated- no double bonds, no kinks, tightly packed /Unsaturated- double bonds from carbon to carbon |
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Phospholipids
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/constructed like fats but one of the fatty acids is replaced by a phosphate group
/phospholipid bilayer makes up cell membrane phosphate heads polar & water soluble, lipid tails not |
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IKI
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stains starch
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Breakdown of cellulose
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achieved in animals by fungi and termites
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The "Big 4" polymers
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/carbs
/lipids /proteins /nucleic acids |
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Unsaturated
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contains double bonds
kinks - takes more space liquid at room temp |
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trans-fat
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trans rotation around C double bond
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components of phospholipid
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/nonpolar tail
/polar head //amphiphatic molecule //makes up bilayers //forms mycelle in water //selectively permeable |
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steroids
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4-C ring + lipid
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cholesterol
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/steroid
/makes membranes stiffer /plants have sigmasterol |
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waxes
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/lipids with long-chain fatty acids and long-chain alcohols
/waterproof /cuticle /wards off fungus /water-loss prevention |
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proteins
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regulate chemical reactions in cells,
usually very large one or more polypeptide chains |
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polypeptide
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/chains of amino acids
/Each amino acid has two functional groups: //1. Amino group(NH2) //2. Carboxyl group(COOH) |
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9 essential amino acids that humans cannot produce:
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Lysine, tryptophan, thereonine, methiomine, histidine, phenylalanine, leucine, valine, and isoleucine.
/Beans and rice = good |
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protein structure
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/Primary: aa seq
/Secondary: coiling /Tertiary: interactions of R groups /Quaternary: several polypeptides joined together |
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enzymes
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/mostly large, complex proteins that function as organic catalysts under specific conditions.
/work by lowering energy of activation temporarily bonds w/ potentially reactive molecules at a surface site |
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cells discovered in...
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1665 by robert hooke
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cell theory
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/developed in 1838, Schleiden and Schwann
/all organisms are composed of cells /chemical rxns take place within cells /contain hereditary /cells arise from other cells |
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exocytosis
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particles carried by golgi or vesicles out of cell (see fig 4-14 = mucus being released)
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Pectin
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released by fruit to soften it
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root lube
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secreted to help roots penetrate ground
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phases of signal transduction
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1. reception: signals are hormones or chemicals
2. transduction: secondary messengers 3. induction |
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endocytosis types
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1.Reception- signals are usually hormones chemicals produced by one cell type or tissue in order to regulate function else where
2.transduction- secondary massengers produce a reaction 3.induction- activation of cellular processes |
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Plasmodesmata
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/ER caught in the forming cell plate
/narrow strands of cytoplasm that interconnected the protoplasts of neighboring plant cells /Efficient way to move small particles nutrients, sugars, between cells either in bulk flow or via diffusion /size exclusion limits vary by region of cell /viruses can us by coding for movement proteins |
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symplast
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the continuum formed through plasmodesmata
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apoplast
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space outside protoplast
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cytosol
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fluid with in the cytoplasm containing organelles
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middle lamella (intracellular space)
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first produced when new cell walls are formed(mostly pectin)
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secondary cell walls
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derived from primary walls by thickening and inclusion of lignin
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cutin, suberin
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long chain lipids
waterproofing layers in roots and bark |
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Proteins
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amino acid chains - "CCN" structure
R groups can be hydrophobic or hydrophilic Fold with hydrophobic R on inside Folding affects function |
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amylose
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starch
glucose polymer linear chain 100 - 1000 subunits harder to remove glucose |
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amylopectin
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starch - branched chain of glucose polymer
1000-6000 subunits branching -> easier removal of glucose units cf glycogen in animals - branched, shorter storage |
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fructans
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starch - soluble polymer
breaks down in gut beans, legumes |
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enzyme
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protein function
substrate fits the active site of the enzyme suffix ase appended to substrate enzyme changes shape as substrate binds to make reaction happen |
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protein functions
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enzyme
transcription factors channels energy & material storage (in plants: animals if starving) |
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transcription factor
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protein function
modify what DNA gene gets expressed, change the amount of messengerRNA mRNA |
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channels
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protein function
allow substances to pass thru cell membranes |
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aquaporin
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proteins in membranes - channel
allows water transport across cell membranes |
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Nucleic Acids
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DNA - info storage
RNA - protein synthesis |
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Secondary compounds
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not part of primary metabolism
function for plant = protection from herbivores human use |
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cell structure: plant vs animal
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cell wall
vacuole chloroplasts |
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cell structure: prokaryotes vs eukaryotes
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eukaryotes have organelles & nucleus
prokaryotes have nuclear envelope |
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argument for common source of all life on earth?
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shared basic components, ie DNA, protein, ribosomes, plasma membrane, ...
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ribosome
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protein +RNA, site of protein synthesis
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cell parts: nucleus
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densely packed with DNA - most of DNA in cell
command center - controls cell activity by controlling protein synthesis |
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cell parts: endoplasmic reticulum & ribosomes
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around nucleus
rough ER: has ribosomes, where protein is synthesized smooth ER: lipid synthesis |
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cell parts: Plastids
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organelles with double membranes
sites of photosynthesis, lipid synthesis, pigment storage |
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chloroplasts
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plastid
site of photosynthesis chlorophyll & accessory pigments |
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chromoplasts
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plastid
caretenoids & other pigments -> color changes during fruit ripening, flowers |
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Leucoplast
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colorless plastid
synthesis of oils, starches |
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cell parts: mitochondria
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cell energy factory
site of respiration - glucose broken down, ATP produced |
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evidence for endosymbiosis
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plastids have their own DNA and double membranes
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peroxisomes
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organelle
use toxic peroxides (o-o) to break down fatty acids germinate seeds, photo-respiration in leaves |
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vacuoles
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storage sacks
holds cell sap, sugars, starches, amino acids, 2ndary compounds |
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golgi apparatus
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transport in and out of cell wall
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cytoskeleton
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network of protein filaments used for transport, structure, cell division
transports from golgi microtubules move chromosomes and organelles during mitosis |
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mitosis
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produces cells with the same number of chromosomes as parent,
function = growth Interphase (gap, synthesis, gap) , prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis |
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meiosis
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produces cells with half the number of chromosomes as parent
function = sexual reproduction |
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apoptosis
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programmed cell death
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interphase
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no active cell division, but preparation
G1: increase in size, checkpoint S: DNA duplicated G2: error checking, chromosomes condense |
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preprophase band
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microtubules circle nucleus - proteins - end of interphase
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Prophase
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chromatin packs the DNA into organized units, chromosomes condense & thicken, preprophase band shrinks in width, spindle beings to form, winds around histone proteins
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metaphase
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paired chromosomes line up in Middle of the cell
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anaphase
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an = anti, against, apart
chromosomes pull apart via the mitotic spindle |
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telophase
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chromosomes separate entirely
formation of cell plate - new cell wall |
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plasmodesmata v 2
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physical connections of plasma membranes between cell walls, where cytoplasm can transfer from one to another
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meiosis
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two divisions, meiosis I and II, results in 4 daughter cells, each with 1/2 number of chromosomes
meiosis II is similar to mitosis (but different) |
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mitosis vs meiosis
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prophase I of meiosis - crossing over - recombination
anaphase 1 of meiosis: chromosomes stay together meiosis II |
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alleles
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different versions of same gene
dominant - protein is functional recessive - protein is nonfunctional |
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Mendelian inheritance principles
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individuals have pairs of genes that separate during meiosis
alleles for different traits segregate independently (x - linkage of genes located close together) |
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ploidy level
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variations in number of copies of chromosomes - important source of variation in plants
haploid - 1 diploid - 2 triploid - 3 (mitosis but not meiosis) |
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alternation of generations
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plants use mitosis to make gametes from spores
both haploid and diploid generations have multicellular individuals multicellular organisms as evolve spend less time in haploid phase big difference from animals - only gametes are haploid |