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450 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
New learning is grounded in ________ |
previously learned (stored) knowledge |
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New learning is grounded in ________
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previously learned (stored) knowledge
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All memory processes are susceptible to _____ |
losing information (forgetting) |
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Steps of human memory _____ --> _____ --> _____ |
Acquisition --> Storage --> Retrieval |
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Working memory is more of a _____ than a place |
process |
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virtually all mental activities require ______ |
working memory |
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Do all tasks demand the same amount of working memory? |
No |
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Working memory emphasizes the _____ of shorter term memory |
function |
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when something is in working memory we are saying ________ |
we are saying the ideas are currently activated and are currently being worked on by specific set of operations. |
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How can we measure working memory? |
Digit-span task |
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Digit span task |
test of working memory where a participant it asked to remember digits and the list is increased until memory fails. The maximum number remembered is the digit span. (7+/-2) is the standard working memory |
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What is the standard working memory span as measured by the digit-span task? |
7 plus or minus 2. |
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The 3 Task general resources are: |
Response Selection Executive Control Error Monitoring |
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What controls the task general resources? |
The executive control function |
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Reading span |
a measure of working memory that captures its active nature by asking participants to read sentences and remember the last word. The number of words remembered is the reading span. |
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Operation span |
a measure of working memory that asks participants if an equation is true or false and then asks them to remember a word paired with each equation. The number of words remembered is the operation span. |
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Reading span and operation span strongly correlate with |
test performance reasoning reading ability |
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The hypothetical storage unit in working memory; it is estimated that working memory can hold 7 plus-or-minus 2 chunks. An unspecified quantity of information can be contained within each chunk, since the content of each chunk depends on how the memorizer has organized the materials to be remembered. |
Chunk |
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chunk |
The hypothetical storage unit in working memory; it is estimated that working memory can hold 7 plus-or-minus 2 chunks. An unspecified quantity of information can be contained within each chunk, since the content of each chunk depends on how the memorizer has organized the materials to be remembered.
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Chunking requires |
effort (executive control) |
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does chunking increase working memory? |
No |
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Does an item's position on a list impact whether or not it will be remembered? |
Yes, due to the recency and primacy effects |
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primacy effect |
an often observed advantage in remembering the early presented materials within a sequence of materials. This advantage is generally attributed to the fact that you can focus attention on those items simply because at the beginning of a sequence your attention is not divided between as many items. |
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an often observed advantage in remembering the early presented materials within a sequence of materials. This advantage is generally attributed to the fact that you can focus attention on those items simply because at the beginning of a sequence your attention is not divided between as many items.
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primacy effect |
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the tendency to remember materials that occur late in a series. If the series was just presented, the recency effect can be attributed to the fact that those late-arriving items are still in working memory (simply because nothing else has arrived after those items to bump them out of working memory.) |
recency effect |
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recency effect |
the tendency to remember materials that occur late in a series. If the series was just presented, the recency effect can be attributed to the fact that those late-arriving items are still in working memory (simply because nothing else has arrived after those items to bump them out of working memory.)
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free recall |
a method of assessing memory. The person being tested is asked to come up with as many items as possible from a particular source (such as 'the list you heard earlier' or 'thinks you saw yesterday') in any sequence. |
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a method of assessing memory. The person being tested is asked to come up with as many items as possible from a particular source (such as 'the list you heard earlier' or 'thinks you saw yesterday') in any sequence.
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free recall |
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does 30 seconds of unfilled delat impact the recency effect? |
No |
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allows transfer from WM to LTM |
memory rehersal |
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memory rehersal |
any mental activith that has the effect of maintaining information in working memory. |
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Two types of memory rehersal |
maintenance rehersal Elaborative rehersal |
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maintenance rehersal |
a rote, mechanical process in which items are continually cycled through working memory, merely by being repeated over and over again. |
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AKA - item-specific rehersal |
maintenance rehersal |
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AKA - maintenance rehersal |
item-specific rehersal |
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a rote, mechanical process in which items are continually cycled through working memory, merely by being repeated over and over again.
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maintenance rehersal |
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elaborative rehersal |
a way of engaging materials to be remembered, such that you pay attention to what the materials mean and how they are rlated to one another, or to other things in the surroundings, or to other things you already know. |
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a way of engaging materials to be remembered, such that you pay attention to what the materials mean and how they are rlated to one another, or to other things in the surroundings, or to other things you already know.
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elaborative rehersal |
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Recency effect is based on |
Short-term memory |
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Primacy effect is based on |
long term memory (due to rehersal) |
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Using familiar items or common words increases retention of |
pre-recency, but not recency items. |
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modal model |
a nickname for the specific conception of the architecture of our memory. In this model, working memory serves both as the storage site for material now being contemplated as the 'loading platform' for long term memory. Info can reach working memory through the processes of perception, or it can be drawn from long term memory. Once in working memory, material can be further processed, or it can be recycled for subsequent use. This model encouraged a large quantity of valuable research, but now has largely been set aside, with modern theorizing offering a very different conception of working memory. |
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a nickname for the specific conception of the architecture of our memory. In this model, working memory serves both as the storage site for material now being contemplated as the 'loading platform' for long term memory. Info can reach working memory through the processes of perception, or it can be drawn from long term memory. Once in working memory, material can be further processed, or it can be recycled for subsequent use. This model encouraged a large quantity of valuable research, but now has largely been set aside, with modern theorizing offering a very different conception of working memory.
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modal model |
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serial position |
a data pattern summarizing the relationship between some performance measure (often, likelihood of recall) and the order in which the test materials were presented. In memory studies, the serial position curve tends to be U-shaped, with people best able to recall the first-presented items (primacy effect) and also the last-presented items (recency effect). |
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a data pattern summarizing the relationship between some performance measure (often, likelihood of recall) and the order in which the test materials were presented. In memory studies, the serial position curve tends to be U-shaped, with people best able to recall the first-presented items (primacy effect) and also the last-presented items (recency effect).
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serial position |
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does repeated exposure guarantee memory? |
No, think of the test where we tried to identify which of the pennies were correct. |
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between rehersal and relational/elaborative rehersal, which is superior? |
relational/elaborative rehersal |
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relational rehersal |
a form of mental processing in which you think about the relations, or connections among ideas. The connections created (or strengthened) in this way will later guide memory search. |
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a form of mental processing in which you think about the relations, or connections among ideas. The connections created (or strengthened) in this way will later guide memory search.
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relational rehersal |
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shallow processing |
mode of thinking about material in which you pat attention only to appearances and other superficial aspects of the material; shallow processing typically leads to poor memory retention. |
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mode of thinking about material in which you pat attention only to appearances and other superficial aspects of the material; typically leads to poor memory retention.
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shallow processing |
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deep processing |
mode of thinking in which you pay attention to the meaning and implications of the material; typically leads to excellent memory retention. |
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mode of thinking in which you pay attention to the meaning and implications of the material; typically leads to excellent memory retention.
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deep processing |
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incidental learning |
learning that takes place in the absence of any intention to learn and, ocrrespondingly, in the absence of any expectation of a subsequent memory test. |
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learning that takes place in the absence of any intention to learn and, ocrrespondingly, in the absence of any expectation of a subsequent memory test.
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incidental learning |
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intentional learning |
the acquisition of memories in a setting in which people know that their memory for the information will be tested later. |
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the acquisition of memories in a setting in which people know that their memory for the information will be tested later.
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intentional learning |
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does deep processing or shallow processing lead to better memory retention? |
deep processing leads to better memory retention. |
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The 3 levels of depth of processing |
Shallow Intermediate Deep (Levels of processing are in a D.I. Sh.) |
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does intention matter in memory? |
No, what matters more is the depth of processing. Even unintentional learning will be retained if processed with a deep-learning strategy. |
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retrieval path |
a connection (or series of connections) that can lead to a sought-after memory in long-term storage. |
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a connection (or series of connections) that can lead to a sought-after memory in long-term storage.
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retrieval path |
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Does the organization of the material to be learned matter? |
Yes, we memorize well when we find order in the material. |
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elaborate encoding forces you to think about ____ |
relationships |
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type of encoding that forces you to think about relationships between items. |
elaborate encoding. |
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How does depth of processing promote recall? |
It facilitates later retrieval. |
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mnemonic strategy |
a technique designed to improve memory accuracy and to make learning easier; in general, mnemonic strategies seek in one fashion or another to help memory by imposing an organization on the material to be learned. |
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does it matter what the person memorizing the material is doing at the time of exposure? |
Yes |
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Does the backgrounk knowledge of the memorizer matter? |
yes |
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Are aquisition, storage, and retrieval easily seperable? |
No, because new learning is grounded in previously learned (stored) knowledge and effective learning depends on how the information will be later retrieved. |
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a technique designed to improve memory accuracy and to make learning easier; in general, they seek in one fashion or another to help memory by imposing an organization on the material to be learned. |
mnemonic strategies |
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retrieval paths |
a connection (or series of connections) that can lead to a sought after memory in long term storage |
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a connection (or series of connections) that can lead to a sought after memory in long term storage
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retrieval paths |
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retrieval paths help us do what? |
learn new matererial. |
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context-dependent learning |
a pattern of data in which materials learned in one setting are well remembered when the person returns to that setting, but less well remembered in other settings. |
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a pattern of data in which materials learned in one setting are well remembered when the person returns to that setting, but less well remembered in other settings.
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context-dependent learning |
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context reinstatement |
a procedure in which someone is led to the same mental and emotional state he or she was during a previous event; context reinstatement can often promote accurate recollecton of that event. |
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a procedure in which someone is led to the same mental and emotional state he or she was during a previous event; context reinstatement can often promote accurate recollecton of that event.
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context reinstatement |
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learning involves forming |
connections |
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the greater/richer the number of learning-related connections activated, the better the |
retrieval |
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encoding specificity |
the tendency. when meorizing to place in memory both the materials to be learned and also some amount of the context of those materials. As a result, these materials will be recognized as familiar, later on, only if the materials appear again in a similar context. |
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the tendency. when meorizing to place in memory both the materials to be learned and also some amount of the context of those materials. As a result, these materials will be recognized as familiar, later on, only if the materials appear again in a similar context.
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encoding specificity |
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a framework for explaining how context effects both learning and recall |
encoding specificity principle |
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memory is more effective when information available at encoding is also |
present at retrieval |
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spreading activation |
a process through which activation travels from one node to another, via associative links. As each node becomes activated, it serves as a source for further activation, spreading onward through the network. |
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a process through which activation travels from one node to another, via associative links. As each node becomes activated, it serves as a source for further activation, spreading onward through the network.
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spreading activation |
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associations |
functional connections that are hypothesized to link nodes within a mental network or detectors within a detector network; these assocations are often hypothesized as the carriers of activations, from one node or detector to the next. |
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functional connections that are hypothesized to link nodes within a mental network or detectors within a detector network; these assocations are often hypothesized as the carriers of activations, from one node or detector to the next.
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associations |
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detector |
a node within a processing network that fires primarily in response to a specific target contained within the incoming perceptual information |
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a node within a processing network that fires primarily in response to a specific target contained within the incoming perceptual information
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detector |
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node |
an individual unit within an associative network. In a scheme using local representation, it represent single ideas or concepts. In a scheme using distributed representations, ideas or contents are represented by a pattern of activation across a wide number of them |
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an individual unit within an associative network. In a scheme using local representation, it represent single ideas or concepts. In a scheme using distributed representations, ideas or contents are represented by a pattern of activation across a wide number of them
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node |
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in a scheme using local representation nodes represent |
single ideas or concepts |
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in a scheme using distributed representations ideas or concepts are represented by |
a pattern of activation across a wide number of nodes |
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can the same nodes participate in other patterns of memory? |
yes |
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File management for computers |
Creating---> Storing---> Opening |
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What does executive control handle? |
Sequences of thought and action Select and launch responses Plan and set goals Break habits or routines |
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what type of presentation aids pre-recency items? |
slow presentation aids pre-recency items, but leaves recency effect the same. |
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incidental learning |
learning that takes place in the absence of any intention to learn and, correspondingly, in the absence of any expectation of a subsequent memory test |
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learning that takes place in the absence of any intention to learn and, in the absence of any expectation of a subsequent memory test |
incidental learning |
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intentional learning |
the acquisition of memories in a setting where people know their memory for the information will be tested later |
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the acquisition of memories in a setting where people know their memory for the information will be tested later. |
intentional learning |
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in shallow processing you pay attention to |
surface or perceptual features |
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in deep processing you pay attention to |
processed, meaningful interpretations of the information |
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Are these words in the same font is an example of what depth of processing? |
shallow |
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do these words rhyme is an example of what depth of processing? |
medium |
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are these words synonyms is an example of what depth of processing? |
Deep |
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structural tasks that ask you to note the pattern of consonants and vowels in a word are and example of what depth of processing? |
shallow |
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semantic tasks that ask if the given word fits in a sentence is an example of what depth of processing? |
deep |
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ROYGBIV is an example of what type of mnemonics? |
first letter mnemonics |
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skeleton peg-word system of mnemonics |
items are 'hung' on a system of already known 'pegs' using mental imagery. |
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the downside of mnemonics is |
that you don't look for a richer understanding of the material by relating it to things already known. |
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does effective learning depend on how the information will later be retrieved? |
yes |
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does the state of the person attempting to recall a memory matter? |
yes, memory is most effective when an individual is in the same state they were when the memory was formed. |
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________ is similar to neurons in that when input sums to reach a threshold, it causes firing |
spreading activation |
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Spreading activation travels from one node to another via _____ |
associative links |
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_____ travels from one node to another via associative links |
spreading activation |
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_____ offers an account of how connections impact learning |
spreading activation |
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spreading activation offers an account of how |
connections impact learning |
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threshold |
the activity level at which a cell or detector responds or fires |
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the activity level at which a cell or detector responds or fires |
threshold |
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____ and ____ suggest an explanation for why hints often help us remember. |
spreading activation thresholds |
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subthreshold activation |
activation levels below response threshold. STA will not trigger a response but is important because it can accumulate, leading to an activation level that exceeds the response threshold |
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activation levels below response threshold. It will not trigger a response but is important because it can accumulate, leading to an activation level that exceeds the response threshold
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subthreshold activation |
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response threshold |
the quantity of information, or quantity of activation needed in order to trigger a response. |
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the quantity of information or activation needed in order to trigger a response |
response threshold |
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activation level |
a measure of the current status for a node or detector. Activation level is increased if the node or detector receives the appropriate input from its associated nodes or detectors; activation level will be high if input has been received frequently or recently |
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A measure of the current status for a node or detector. |
activation level |
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is increased if the node or detector gets the appropriate input from it's associated nodes or detectors |
activation level |
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____ will be high if the node or detector has frequently or recently gotten input |
activation level |
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detector |
a node within a processing network that fires primarily in response to a specific target contained within the incoming perceptual information |
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a node within a processing network that fires primarily in response to a specific target contained within the incoming perceptual information. |
detector |
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processing pathway |
the sequence of NODES and DETECTORS and the connections among these various units that activation flows through when dealing with a specific stimulus |
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the sequence of NODES and DETECTORS and the connections among these units that activation flows through when dealing with a specific stimulus. |
processing pathway |
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recognition |
the task of memory retrieval where the items to be remembered are presented and the person must decide whether or not the item was encountered in some earlier circumstance. |
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the task of memory RETRIEVAL where the items to be remembered are presented and the person must decide whether or not the item was encountered in some earlier circumstance. |
recognition |
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recognition is a task of memory ____ |
retrieval |
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"Have you ever seen this person before" is a question of ____ |
recognition |
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"Was this poster in the group you saw last week" is a question of ____ |
recognition |
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recall |
the task of memory RETRIEVAL in which the person must come up with the desired materials, sometimes in response to a cue that names the context in which these materials were earlier encountered or sometimes in response to a question that requires the information |
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the task of memory RETRIEVAL where the person must come up with the desired material sometimes in response to a cue and sometimes in response to a question that uses the sought after information |
recall |
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"name the pictures you saw earlier" requires recall or recognition? |
recall |
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"name a fruit" requires RECALL or RECOGNITION? |
Recall |
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"What is the capital of California?" requires recall or recognition? |
Recall |
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____ requires a controlled search through memory |
recall |
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source memory |
a form of memory that allows you to recollect the episode in which learning took place or the time and place in which a particular stimulus was encountered. |
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a form of memory that allows you to recollect the episode in which learning took place or the time and place in which a particular stimulus was encountered. |
source memory |
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If ______ is available recognition responses are similar in mechanism to recall |
source memory |
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if source memory is available recognition responses are similar in mechanism to |
recall |
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familiarity |
the subjective feeling that you have encountered a stimulus before or the fact that you have indeed encountered a stimulus before and are now in some way influenced by that encounter, whether or not you recall that encounter or feel the stimulus is familiar. |
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the subjective feeling you have encountered a stimulus before or the objective fact that you have encountered a stimulus before and are now in some way influenced by that encounter, whether or not you recall it or feel the stimulus is familiar |
familiarity |
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In some cases recognition responses are based on a feeling of ___ |
familiarity |
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in some cases ____ responses are based on a feeling of familiarity. |
recognition responses |
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______ is associated retrieval of source and context whereas memory based on ____ is not |
recall familiarity |
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are the processes that mediate source memory and familiarity in the brain the same? |
No, they are dissociable in the brain. |
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what area of the brain supports memory for source? |
hippocampus |
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what part of the brain is linked to recall? |
hippocampus because it supports memory for source. |
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areas of the brain implicated in familiarity related signals |
left lateral parietal cortex |
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familiarity = |
recognition |
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recognition = |
familiarity |
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is the hippocampus linked to recall or recognition? |
recall |
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is the left lateral parietal cortex linked to recall or recognition? |
recognition (familiarity) |
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can we be influenced by memories of which we are not aware? |
Yes |
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can we have familiarity without conscious or episodic memory? |
Yes |
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Can only a feeling of familiarity influence us? |
Yes |
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Gollin's partial pictures task assesses __ |
perceptual learning |
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e_ _ _ p _ _ n _ is an example of what indirect test that can reveal memory of the past? |
word-fragment completion |
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sp _ _ _ is an example of what indirect test that can reveal memory of the past? |
word-stem completion |
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word-stem completion |
a task in which people are given the beginning of a word and must provide a word that starts with the letters provided. In some versions only one solution is possible and performance is measured by counting the number of words completed. In other versions several solutions are possible for each stem and performance is assessed by determining which of the responses fulfill some other criterion. |
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a task in which people are given the beginning of a word and must provide a word that starts with the letters provided. |
word-stem completion task |
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in the version of the word-stem completion task where only one solution is possible, performance is measured by ___ |
counting the number of words completed |
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in the version of the word-stem completion task where several solutions are possible for a given word, performance is measured by ___ |
determining which of the responses fulfill some other criterion. |
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repetition priming |
a pattern of priming that occurs simply because a stimulus is presented a second time; processing is more efficient on the second presentation. |
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a pattern of priming that occurs simply because a stimulus is presented a second time; processing is more efficient on the second presentation. |
repetition priming |
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In repetition priming _______ is more efficient on the second presentation. |
processing |
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priming |
a process through which one input or cue prepares a person for an upcoming input or cue. |
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a process through which one input or cue prepares a person for an upcoming input or cue. |
priming |
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Implicit memories refer to memories __________ |
not accessible by conscious awareness |
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are implicit memories revealed by direct memory tests? |
No |
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Are implicit memories revealed by indirect memory tests? |
yes |
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direct memory testing |
form of memory testing in which people are asked to explicitly remember some previous event. Recall and standard recognition testing both forms of direct memory testing. |
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forms of direct memory testing |
recall standard recognition testing |
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Recall and standard recognition testing are both forms of what type of memory testing? |
direct memory testing |
direct or indirect? |
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form of memory testing in which people are asked explicitly to remember some previous event |
direct memory testing |
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a form of memory testing in which participants are not told their memories are being tested. Instead, they are tested in a way where previous experiences can influence current behavior. |
indirect memory testing |
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indirect memory testing |
a form of memory testing in which participants are not told their memories are being tested. They are tested in a way where previous experiences can influence current behavior. |
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word-stem completion, the lexical decision task, and tachistoscopic recognition are examples of what type of memory testing? |
indirect memory testing |
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examples of indirect memory testing |
word stem completion lexical decision task tachistoscopic recognition |
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word stem completion tasks is what type of memory testing? |
indirect |
direct or indirect? |
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the lexical decision task is what type of memory testing? |
indirect |
direct or indirect? |
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tachistoscopic recognition is what type of memory testing? |
indirect |
direct or indirect? |
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lexical decision task |
a test in which participants are shown strings of letters and must indicate, as quickly as possible, whether each string of letters is a word in English or not. It is supposed that people perform this task by looking up these strings in their mental dictionary. |
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a test in which participants are show strings of letters and must indicate, as quickly as possible, whether each string of letters is a word in English or not. |
lexical decision task |
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it is supposed that people perform this task by looking up the strings in their mental dictionary |
lexical decision task |
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tachistoscope |
a device that allows the presentation of stimuli for precisely controlled amounts of time, including very brief presentations |
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device that allows the presentation of stimuli for precisely controlled amounts of time, including very brief presentations. |
tachistoscope |
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a priming task is a test of ____ memory |
indirect |
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implicit memory |
a memory revealed by indirect memory testing and usually manifested as a priming effect in which current performance is guided or facilitated by previous experiences. Often accompanied by no conscious realization that one is being influenced by specific past experiences. |
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a memory revealed by indirect memory testing |
implicit memory |
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a memory revealed by indirect memory testing and usually manifested as a priming effect in which current performance is guided or facilitated by previous experiences. Often accompanied by no conscious realization that they are being influenced by specific past experiences |
implicit memory |
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type of memory that is usually manifested as a priming effect |
implicit memory |
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often accompanied by no conscious realization that one is being influenced by specific past experiences |
implicit memory |
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explicit memory |
a memory revealed by direct memory testing and typically accompanied by the conviction that one is remembering -- drawing on some sort of knowledge |
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a memory revealed by direct memory testing and typically accompanied by the conviction that one is remembering -- drawing on some sort of knowledge |
explicit memory |
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_____ memory can involve processing fluency |
implicit memory |
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implicit memory can involve _______ -- an improvement in the speed or ease of processing. |
processing fluency |
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processing fluency |
an improvement in the speed or ease of processing that results from prior practice using those same processing steps |
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an improvement in the speed or ease or processing that results from prior practice using those same processing steps |
processing fluency |
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Squire's Taxonomy of Memory |
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Gollin's Partial Pictures Task |
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Squire's Taxonomy of Memory |
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Squire's first level in the taxonomy of memory |
Explicit Memory vs Implicit Memory |
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conscious memories are _____ |
explicit memories |
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memories for specific events are called ___ |
Episodic memory |
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general knowledge not tied to any time or place are called |
semantic memory |
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memory for skills |
procedural memory |
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memory that knows 'how' to do a thing |
procedural memory |
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changes in perception and belief caused by previous experience |
priming |
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re-calibration of perceptual systems as a result of experience |
perceptual learning |
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learning about associations among stimuli |
classical conditioning |
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Types of explicit memory in Squire's Taxonomy of Memory |
Episodic - specific events Semantic - general knowledge |
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types of implicit memory in Squire's Taxonomy of Memory |
Procedural - Skills/how Priming - changes in perception and belief from experience Perceptual learning - recalibration of perceptual systems from experience Classical conditioning - associations among stimuli |
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Is episodic memory explicit or implicit? |
explicit |
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is semantic memory explicit or implicit? |
explicit |
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is procedural memory explicit or implicit? |
Implicit |
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is priming explicit or implicit? |
implicit |
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New learning is grounded in ________
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previously learned (stored) knowledge
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All memory processes are susceptible to _____
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losing information (forgetting)
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Steps of human memory _____ --> _____ --> _____
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Acquisition --> Storage --> Retrieval
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Working memory is more of a _____ than a place
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process
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virtually all mental activities require ______
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working memory
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Do all tasks demand the same amount of working memory?
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No
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Working memory emphasizes the _____ of shorter term memory
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function
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when something is in working memory we are saying ________
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we are saying the ideas are currently activated and are currently being worked on by specific set of operations.
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How can we measure working memory?
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Digit-span task
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Digit span task
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test of working memory where a participant it asked to remember digits and the list is increased until memory fails. The maximum number remembered is the digit span.(7+/-2) is the standard working memory
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What is the standard working memory span as measured by the digit-span task?
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7 plus or minus 2.
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The 3 Task general resources are:
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Response SelectionExecutive ControlError Monitoring
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What controls the task general resources?
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The executive control function
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Reading span
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a measure of working memory that captures its active nature by asking participants to read sentences and remember the last word. The number of words remembered is the reading span.
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Operation span
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a measure of working memory that asks participants if an equation is true or false and then asks them to remember a word paired with each equation. The number of words remembered is the operation span.
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Reading span and operation span strongly correlate with
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test performancereasoningreading ability
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The hypothetical storage unit in working memory; it is estimated that working memory can hold 7 plus-or-minus 2 chunks. An unspecified quantity of information can be contained within each chunk, since the content of each chunk depends on how the memorizer has organized the materials to be remembered.
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Chunk
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chunk
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The hypothetical storage unit in working memory; it is estimated that working memory can hold 7 plus-or-minus 2 chunks. An unspecified quantity of information can be contained within each chunk, since the content of each chunk depends on how the memorizer has organized the materials to be remembered.
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Chunking requires
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effort (executive control)
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does chunking increase working memory?
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No
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Does an item's position on a list impact whether or not it will be remembered?
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Yes, due to the recency and primacy effects
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primacy effect
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an often observed advantage in remembering the early presented materials within a sequence of materials. This advantage is generally attributed to the fact that you can focus attention on those items simply because at the beginning of a sequence your attention is not divided between as many items.
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an often observed advantage in remembering the early presented materials within a sequence of materials. This advantage is generally attributed to the fact that you can focus attention on those items simply because at the beginning of a sequence your attention is not divided between as many items.
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primacy effect
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the tendency to remember materials that occur late in a series. If the series was just presented, the recency effect can be attributed to the fact that those late-arriving items are still in working memory (simply because nothing else has arrived after those items to bump them out of working memory.)
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recency effect
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recency effect
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the tendency to remember materials that occur late in a series. If the series was just presented, the recency effect can be attributed to the fact that those late-arriving items are still in working memory (simply because nothing else has arrived after those items to bump them out of working memory.)
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free recall
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a method of assessing memory. The person being tested is asked to come up with as many items as possible from a particular source (such as 'the list you heard earlier' or 'thinks you saw yesterday') in any sequence.
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a method of assessing memory. The person being tested is asked to come up with as many items as possible from a particular source (such as 'the list you heard earlier' or 'thinks you saw yesterday') in any sequence.
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free recall
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does 30 seconds of unfilled delat impact the recency effect?
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No
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allows transfer from WM to LTM
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memory rehersal
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memory rehersal
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any mental activith that has the effect of maintaining information in working memory.
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Two types of memory rehersal
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maintenance rehersalElaborative rehersal
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maintenance rehersal
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a rote, mechanical process in which items are continually cycled through working memory, merely by being repeated over and over again.
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AKA - item-specific rehersal
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maintenance rehersal
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AKA - maintenance rehersal
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item-specific rehersal
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a rote, mechanical process in which items are continually cycled through working memory, merely by being repeated over and over again.
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maintenance rehersal
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elaborative rehersal
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a way of engaging materials to be remembered, such that you pay attention to what the materials mean and how they are rlated to one another, or to other things in the surroundings, or to other things you already know.
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a way of engaging materials to be remembered, such that you pay attention to what the materials mean and how they are rlated to one another, or to other things in the surroundings, or to other things you already know.
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elaborative rehersal
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Recency effect is based on
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Short-term memory
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Primacy effect is based on
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long term memory (due to rehersal)
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Using familiar items or common words increases retention of
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pre-recency, but not recency items.
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modal model
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a nickname for the specific conception of the architecture of our memory. In this model, working memory serves both as the storage site for material now being contemplated as the 'loading platform' for long term memory. Info can reach working memory through the processes of perception, or it can be drawn from long term memory. Once in working memory, material can be further processed, or it can be recycled for subsequent use. This model encouraged a large quantity of valuable research, but now has largely been set aside, with modern theorizing offering a very different conception of working memory.
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a nickname for the specific conception of the architecture of our memory. In this model, working memory serves both as the storage site for material now being contemplated as the 'loading platform' for long term memory. Info can reach working memory through the processes of perception, or it can be drawn from long term memory. Once in working memory, material can be further processed, or it can be recycled for subsequent use. This model encouraged a large quantity of valuable research, but now has largely been set aside, with modern theorizing offering a very different conception of working memory.
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modal model
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serial position
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a data pattern summarizing the relationship between some performance measure (often, likelihood of recall) and the order in which the test materials were presented. In memory studies, the serial position curve tends to be U-shaped, with people best able to recall the first-presented items (primacy effect) and also the last-presented items (recency effect).
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a data pattern summarizing the relationship between some performance measure (often, likelihood of recall) and the order in which the test materials were presented. In memory studies, the serial position curve tends to be U-shaped, with people best able to recall the first-presented items (primacy effect) and also the last-presented items (recency effect).
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serial position
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does repeated exposure guarantee memory?
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No, think of the test where we tried to identify which of the pennies were correct.
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between rehersal and relational/elaborative rehersal, which is superior?
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relational/elaborative rehersal
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relational rehersal
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a form of mental processing in which you think about the relations, or connections among ideas. The connections created (or strengthened) in this way will later guide memory search.
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a form of mental processing in which you think about the relations, or connections among ideas. The connections created (or strengthened) in this way will later guide memory search.
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relational rehersal
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shallow processing
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mode of thinking about material in which you pat attention only to appearances and other superficial aspects of the material; shallow processing typically leads to poor memory retention.
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mode of thinking about material in which you pat attention only to appearances and other superficial aspects of the material; typically leads to poor memory retention.
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shallow processing
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deep processing
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mode of thinking in which you pay attention to the meaning and implications of the material; typically leads to excellent memory retention.
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mode of thinking in which you pay attention to the meaning and implications of the material; typically leads to excellent memory retention.
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deep processing
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incidental learning
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learning that takes place in the absence of any intention to learn and, ocrrespondingly, in the absence of any expectation of a subsequent memory test.
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learning that takes place in the absence of any intention to learn and, ocrrespondingly, in the absence of any expectation of a subsequent memory test.
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incidental learning
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intentional learning
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the acquisition of memories in a setting in which people know that their memory for the information will be tested later.
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the acquisition of memories in a setting in which people know that their memory for the information will be tested later.
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intentional learning
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does deep processing or shallow processing lead to better memory retention?
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deep processing leads to better memory retention.
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The 3 levels of depth of processing
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ShallowIntermediateDeep(Levels of processing are in a D.I. Sh.)
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does intention matter in memory?
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No, what matters more is the depth of processing. Even unintentional learning will be retained if processed with a deep-learning strategy.
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retrieval path
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a connection (or series of connections) that can lead to a sought-after memory in long-term storage.
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a connection (or series of connections) that can lead to a sought-after memory in long-term storage.
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retrieval path
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Does the organization of the material to be learned matter?
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Yes, we memorize well when we find order in the material.
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elaborate encoding forces you to think about ____
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relationships
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type of encoding that forces you to think about relationships between items.
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elaborate encoding.
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How does depth of processing promote recall?
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It facilitates later retrieval.
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mnemonic strategy
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a technique designed to improve memory accuracy and to make learning easier; in general, mnemonic strategies seek in one fashion or another to help memory by imposing an organization on the material to be learned.
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does it matter what the person memorizing the material is doing at the time of exposure?
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Yes
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Does the backgrounk knowledge of the memorizer matter?
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yes
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Are aquisition, storage, and retrieval easily seperable?
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No, because new learning is grounded in previously learned (stored) knowledge and effective learning depends on how the information will be later retrieved.
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a technique designed to improve memory accuracy and to make learning easier; in general, they seek in one fashion or another to help memory by imposing an organization on the material to be learned.
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mnemonic strategies
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retrieval paths
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a connection (or series of connections) that can lead to a sought after memory in long term storage
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a connection (or series of connections) that can lead to a sought after memory in long term storage
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retrieval paths
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retrieval paths help us do what?
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learn new matererial.
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context-dependent learning
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a pattern of data in which materials learned in one setting are well remembered when the person returns to that setting, but less well remembered in other settings.
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a pattern of data in which materials learned in one setting are well remembered when the person returns to that setting, but less well remembered in other settings.
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context-dependent learning
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context reinstatement
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a procedure in which someone is led to the same mental and emotional state he or she was during a previous event; context reinstatement can often promote accurate recollecton of that event.
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a procedure in which someone is led to the same mental and emotional state he or she was during a previous event; context reinstatement can often promote accurate recollecton of that event.
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context reinstatement
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learning involves forming
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connections
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the greater/richer the number of learning-related connections activated, the better the
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retrieval
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encoding specificity
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the tendency. when meorizing to place in memory both the materials to be learned and also some amount of the context of those materials. As a result, these materials will be recognized as familiar, later on, only if the materials appear again in a similar context.
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the tendency. when meorizing to place in memory both the materials to be learned and also some amount of the context of those materials. As a result, these materials will be recognized as familiar, later on, only if the materials appear again in a similar context.
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encoding specificity
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a framework for explaining how context effects both learning and recall
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encoding specificity principle
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memory is more effective when information available at encoding is also
|
present at retrieval
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spreading activation
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a process through which activation travels from one node to another, via associative links. As each node becomes activated, it serves as a source for further activation, spreading onward through the network.
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a process through which activation travels from one node to another, via associative links. As each node becomes activated, it serves as a source for further activation, spreading onward through the network.
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spreading activation
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associations
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functional connections that are hypothesized to link nodes within a mental network or detectors within a detector network; these assocations are often hypothesized as the carriers of activations, from one node or detector to the next.
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functional connections that are hypothesized to link nodes within a mental network or detectors within a detector network; these assocations are often hypothesized as the carriers of activations, from one node or detector to the next.
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associations
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detector
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a node within a processing network that fires primarily in response to a specific target contained within the incoming perceptual information
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a node within a processing network that fires primarily in response to a specific target contained within the incoming perceptual information
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detector
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node
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an individual unit within an associative network. In a scheme using local representation, it represent single ideas or concepts. In a scheme using distributed representations, ideas or contents are represented by a pattern of activation across a wide number of them
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an individual unit within an associative network. In a scheme using local representation, it represent single ideas or concepts. In a scheme using distributed representations, ideas or contents are represented by a pattern of activation across a wide number of them
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node
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in a scheme using local representation nodes represent
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single ideas or concepts
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in a scheme using distributed representations ideas or concepts are represented by
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a pattern of activation across a wide number of nodes
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can the same nodes participate in other patterns of memory?
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yes
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File management for computers
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Creating---> Storing---> Opening
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What does executive control handle?
|
Sequences of thought and actionSelect and launch responsesPlan and set goalsBreak habits or routines
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what type of presentation aids pre-recency items?
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slow presentation aids pre-recency items, but leaves recency effect the same.
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incidental learning
|
learning that takes place in the absence of any intention to learn and, correspondingly, in the absence of any expectation of a subsequent memory test
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learning that takes place in the absence of any intention to learn and, in the absence of any expectation of a subsequent memory test
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incidental learning
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intentional learning
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the acquisition of memories in a setting where people know their memory for the information will be tested later
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the acquisition of memories in a setting where people know their memory for the information will be tested later.
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intentional learning
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in shallow processing you pay attention to
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surface or perceptual features
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in deep processing you pay attention to
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processed, meaningful interpretations of the information
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Are these words in the same font is an example of what depth of processing?
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shallow
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do these words rhyme is an example of what depth of processing?
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medium
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are these words synonyms is an example of what depth of processing?
|
Deep
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structural tasks that ask you to note the pattern of consonants and vowels in a word are and example of what depth of processing?
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shallow
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semantic tasks that ask if the given word fits in a sentence is an example of what depth of processing?
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deep
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ROYGBIV is an example of what type of mnemonics?
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first letter mnemonics
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skeleton peg-word system of mnemonics
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items are 'hung' on a system of already known 'pegs' using mental imagery.
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the downside of mnemonics is
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that you don't look for a richer understanding of the material by relating it to things already known.
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does effective learning depend on how the information will later be retrieved?
|
yes
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does the state of the person attempting to recall a memory matter?
|
yes, memory is most effective when an individual is in the same state they were when the memory was formed.
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________ is similar to neurons in that when input sums to reach a threshold, it causes firing
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spreading activation
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Spreading activation travels from one node to another via _____
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associative links
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_____ travels from one node to another via associative links
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spreading activation
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_____ offers an account of how connections impact learning
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spreading activation
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spreading activation offers an account of how
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connections impact learning
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threshold
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the activity level at which a cell or detector responds or fires
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the activity level at which a cell or detector responds or fires
|
threshold
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____ and ____ suggest an explanation for why hints often help us remember.
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spreading activationthresholds
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subthreshold activation
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activation levels below response threshold. STA will not trigger a response but is important because it can accumulate, leading to an activation level that exceeds the response threshold
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activation levels below response threshold. It will not trigger a response but is important because it can accumulate, leading to an activation level that exceeds the response threshold
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subthreshold activation
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response threshold
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the quantity of information, or quantity of activation needed in order to trigger a response.
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the quantity of information or activation needed in order to trigger a response
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response threshold
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activation level
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a measure of the current status for a node or detector. Activation level is increased if the node or detector receives the appropriate input from its associated nodes or detectors; activation level will be high if input has been received frequently or recently
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A measure of the current status for a node or detector.
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activation level
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is increased if the node or detector gets the appropriate input from it's associated nodes or detectors
|
activation level
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____ will be high if the node or detector has frequently or recently gotten input
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activation level
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detector
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a node within a processing network that fires primarily in response to a specific target contained within the incoming perceptual information
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a node within a processing network that fires primarily in response to a specific target contained within the incoming perceptual information.
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detector
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processing pathway
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the sequence of NODES and DETECTORS and the connections among these various units that activation flows through when dealing with a specific stimulus
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the sequence of NODES and DETECTORS and the connections among these units that activation flows through when dealing with a specific stimulus.
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processing pathway
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recognition
|
the task of memory retrieval where the items to be remembered are presented and the person must decide whether or not the item was encountered in some earlier circumstance.
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the task of memory RETRIEVAL where the items to be remembered are presented and the person must decide whether or not the item was encountered in some earlier circumstance.
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recognition
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recognition is a task of memory ____
|
retrieval
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"Have you ever seen this person before" is a question of ____
|
recognition
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"Was this poster in the group you saw last week" is a question of ____
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recognition
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recall
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the task of memory RETRIEVAL in which the person must come up with the desired materials, sometimes in response to a cue that names the context in which these materials were earlier encountered or sometimes in response to a question that requires the information
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the task of memory RETRIEVAL where the person must come up with the desired material sometimes in response to a cue and sometimes in response to a question that uses the sought after information
|
recall
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"name the pictures you saw earlier" requires recall or recognition?
|
recall
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"name a fruit" requires RECALL or RECOGNITION?
|
Recall
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"What is the capital of California?" requires recall or recognition?
|
Recall
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____ requires a controlled search through memory
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recall
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source memory
|
a form of memory that allows you to recollect the episode in which learning took place or the time and place in which a particular stimulus was encountered.
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|
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a form of memory that allows you to recollect the episode in which learning took place or the time and place in which a particular stimulus was encountered.
|
source memory
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If ______ is available recognition responses are similar in mechanism to recall
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source memory
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if source memory is available recognition responses are similar in mechanism to
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recall
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familiarity
|
the subjective feeling that you have encountered a stimulus before or the fact that you have indeed encountered a stimulus before and are now in some way influenced by that encounter, whether or not you recall that encounter or feel the stimulus is familiar.
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the subjective feeling you have encountered a stimulus before or the objective fact that you have encountered a stimulus before and are now in some way influenced by that encounter, whether or not you recall it or feel the stimulus is familiar
|
familiarity
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In some cases recognition responses are based on a feeling of ___
|
familiarity
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in some cases ____ responses are based on a feeling of familiarity.
|
recognition responses
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______ is associated retrieval of source and context whereas memory based on ____ is not
|
recallfamiliarity
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are the processes that mediate source memory and familiarity in the brain the same?
|
No, they are dissociable in the brain.
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what area of the brain supports memory for source?
|
hippocampus
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what part of the brain is linked to recall?
|
hippocampus because it supports memory for source.
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areas of the brain implicated in familiarity related signals
|
left lateral parietal cortex
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familiarity =
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recognition
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|
|
recognition =
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familiarity
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is the hippocampus linked to recall or recognition?
|
recall
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is the left lateral parietal cortex linked to recall or recognition?
|
recognition (familiarity)
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can we be influenced by memories of which we are not aware?
|
Yes
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can we have familiarity without conscious or episodic memory?
|
Yes
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Can only a feeling of familiarity influence us?
|
Yes
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Gollin's partial pictures task assesses __
|
perceptual learning
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e_ _ _ p _ _ n _ is an example of what indirect test that can reveal memory of the past?
|
word-fragment completion
|
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sp _ _ _ is an example of what indirect test that can reveal memory of the past?
|
word-stem completion
|
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word-stem completion
|
a task in which people are given the beginning of a word and must provide a word that starts with the letters provided. In some versions only one solution is possible and performance is measured by counting the number of words completed. In other versions several solutions are possible for each stem and performance is assessed by determining which of the responses fulfill some other criterion.
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|
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a task in which people are given the beginning of a word and must provide a word that starts with the letters provided.
|
word-stem completion task
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in the version of the word-stem completion task where only one solution is possible, performance is measured by ___
|
counting the number of words completed
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in the version of the word-stem completion task where several solutions are possible for a given word, performance is measured by ___
|
determining which of the responses fulfill some other criterion.
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repetition priming
|
a pattern of priming that occurs simply because a stimulus is presented a second time; processing is more efficient on the second presentation.
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|
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a pattern of priming that occurs simply because a stimulus is presented a second time; processing is more efficient on the second presentation.
|
repetition priming
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In repetition priming _______ is more efficient on the second presentation.
|
processing
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priming
|
a process through which one input or cue prepares a person for an upcoming input or cue.
|
|
|
a process through which one input or cue prepares a person for an upcoming input or cue.
|
priming
|
|
|
Implicit memories refer to memories __________
|
not accessible by conscious awareness
|
|
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are implicit memories revealed by direct memory tests?
|
No
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|
|
Are implicit memories revealed by indirect memory tests?
|
yes
|
|
|
direct memory testing
|
form of memory testing in which people are asked to explicitly remember some previous event.Recall and standard recognition testing both forms of direct memory testing.
|
|
|
forms of direct memory testing
|
recallstandard recognition testing
|
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Recall and standard recognition testing are both forms of what type of memory testing?
|
direct memory testing
|
direct or indirect?
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form of memory testing in which people are asked explicitly to remember some previous event
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direct memory testing
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a form of memory testing in which participants are not told their memories are being tested. Instead, they are tested in a way where previous experiences can influence current behavior.
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indirect memory testing
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indirect memory testing
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a form of memory testing in which participants are not told their memories are being tested. They are tested in a way where previous experiences can influence current behavior.
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word-stem completion, the lexical decision task, and tachistoscopic recognition are examples of what type of memory testing?
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indirect memory testing
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examples of indirect memory testing
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word stem completionlexical decision tasktachistoscopic recognition
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word stem completion tasks is what type of memory testing?
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indirect
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direct or indirect?
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the lexical decision task is what type of memory testing?
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indirect
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direct or indirect?
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tachistoscopic recognition is what type of memory testing?
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indirect
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direct or indirect?
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lexical decision task
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a test in which participants are shown strings of letters and must indicate, as quickly as possible, whether each string of letters is a word in English or not. It is supposed that people perform this task by looking up these strings in their mental dictionary.
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a test in which participants are show strings of letters and must indicate, as quickly as possible, whether each string of letters is a word in English or not.
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lexical decision task
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it is supposed that people perform this task by looking up the strings in their mental dictionary
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lexical decision task
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tachistoscope
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a device that allows the presentation of stimuli for precisely controlled amounts of time, including very brief presentations
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device that allows the presentation of stimuli for precisely controlled amounts of time, including very brief presentations.
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tachistoscope
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a priming task is a test of ____ memory
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indirect
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implicit memory
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a memory revealed by indirect memory testing and usually manifested as a priming effect in which current performance is guided or facilitated by previous experiences. Often accompanied by no conscious realization that one is being influenced by specific past experiences.
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a memory revealed by indirect memory testing
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implicit memory
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a memory revealed by indirect memory testing and usually manifested as a priming effect in which current performance is guided or facilitated by previous experiences. Often accompanied by no conscious realization that they are being influenced by specific past experiences
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implicit memory
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type of memory that is usually manifested as a priming effect
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implicit memory
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often accompanied by no conscious realization that one is being influenced by specific past experiences
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implicit memory
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explicit memory
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a memory revealed by direct memory testing and typically accompanied by the conviction that one is remembering -- drawing on some sort of knowledge
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a memory revealed by direct memory testing and typically accompanied by the conviction that one is remembering -- drawing on some sort of knowledge
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explicit memory
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_____ memory can involve processing fluency
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implicit memory
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implicit memory can involve _______ -- an improvement in the speed or ease of processing.
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processing fluency
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processing fluency
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an improvement in the speed or ease of processing that results from prior practice using those same processing steps
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an improvement in the speed or ease or processing that results from prior practice using those same processing steps
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processing fluency
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Squire's first level in the taxonomy of memory
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Explicit Memory vs Implicit Memory
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conscious memories are _____
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explicit memories
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memories for specific events are called ___
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Episodic memory
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general knowledge not tied to any time or place are called
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semantic memory
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memory for skills
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procedural memory
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memory that knows 'how' to do a thing
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procedural memory
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changes in perception and belief caused by previous experience
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priming
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re-calibration of perceptual systems as a result of experience
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perceptual learning
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learning about associations among stimuli
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classical conditioning
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Types of explicit memory in Squire's Taxonomy of Memory
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Episodic - specific eventsSemantic - general knowledge
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types of implicit memory in Squire's Taxonomy of Memory
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Procedural - Skills/howPriming - changes in perception and belief from experiencePerceptual learning - recalibration of perceptual systems from experienceClassical conditioning - associations among stimuli
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Is episodic memory explicit or implicit?
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explicit
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is semantic memory explicit or implicit?
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explicit
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is procedural memory explicit or implicit?
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Implicit
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is priming explicit or implicit?
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implicit
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Method of Loci |
The method of loci is a method of memorizing information by placing each item to be remembered at a point along an imaginary journey. The information can then be recalled in a specific order by retracing the same route through the imaginary journey. Loci is the plural for of the Latin word, locus, meaning place or location. The method of loci is also called the Journey Method by Dominic O'Brien, and the imaginary journeys are often referred to as Memory Palaces or Memory Journeys.
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a method of memorizing information by placing each item to be remembered at a point along an imaginary journey. The information can then be recalled in a specific order by retracing the same route through the imaginary journey. |
Method of Loci |
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