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405 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
virus
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a package of nucleic acid wrapped in a protein coat
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bacteriophage
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a virus that infects bacteria (phage)
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DNA
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deoxyribonucleic acid. the molecule that stores genetic information
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nucleotides
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makes up DNA. Made up of three parts: a sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base.
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nitrogenous base
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a single or double ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms with functional groups
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pyrimidines
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nitrogenous bases with single rings
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purines
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nitrogenous bases with double rings
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double helix
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DNA molecule's twisting shape
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Adenine pairs with...
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thymine
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guanine pairs with...
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cytosine
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DNA replication
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the process of copying the DNA molecule. During the process, the two strands seperate. Each strand is used as a template. Nucleotides are added to the new strand, according to the rules of base pairing.
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DNA polymerases
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enzymes from the bods between nucleotides of the new DNA strand
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transcription
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the process of when the DNA strand is converted to the form of a single-stranded RNA
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RNA
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ribonucleic acid. a nucleic acid with the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose.
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translation
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the RNA moves to the cytoplasm and cinverts the nucleic sequence into a sequence of amino acids
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codon
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three-based sequence, codes for one amino acid - the order of codons in the RNA determines the order in which the amino acids will be put together to form a polypeptide
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messenger RNA
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(mRNA) transcribed from DNA molecule
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RNA polymerase
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joins the RNA nucleoides together during transcription
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introns
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molecules within mRNA that do not code for amino acids
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RNA splicing
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removes the intorns and joins the coding regions
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exons
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coding regions of mRNA
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transfer RNA
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(tRNA) a molecule with an amino acid binding site at one end and a three-base anticodon at the other end
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anticodon
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a sequence that is complementary to a codon in the mRNA. The tRNA anicodon bids to the mRNA codon, bringing an amino acid in position to be added to the polypeptide.
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ribosomal RNA
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makes up ribosome of cell
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mutation
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a change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA. substitutions: one nucleotide is replaced by another. Insertions/deletions: one or more nucleotides are added or removed from gene
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mutagen
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a physical or chemical agent that causes a mutation.
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genome
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is an organism's complete set of DNA. "supercoil"
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histones
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the DNA is wrapped tightly around these small proteins
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Human Genome Project
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provided a rough draft of the human genome's entire sequence (can help show evolution, identify diseases)
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Trisomy 21
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a condition in which a person has thre number 21 chromosomes. Results in symptoms of Down syndrome
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Down Syndrome
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symptoms: facial features, below-average height, heart defects, varying degree of mental disability, lifetime is shorter than average
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nondisjunction
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a pair of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids fail to seperate during meiosis
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duplication
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occurs when a part of a chromosome is repeated and can cause other disorders
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inversion
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occurs whn part of a chromosome is reversed
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translocation
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occurs when a portion of a chromosome attaches to a non-homologous chromosome
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transposons
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"jumping genes". single genes changing their position on the chromosome or moving to another chromosome entirely.
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pedigree
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traces the occurence of a trait in a family
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carrier
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an individual with one copy of the allele for a recessive disorder who does not show symptoms
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sex-linked disorder...
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color-blindness(mostly males)
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recessive disorders...
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albinism (not life-threatening)
Tay-Sachs disease and cystic fibrosis (life-threatening) |
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genetic counselor
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a individual trained to collect and interpret family histories of genetic disorders
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growth factors
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one class of genes codes for proteins which start the process of cell division
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tumor-suppressor genes
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the other class of genes that produce proteins that stop cell division when a cell's DNA is damaged
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oncogene
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this is when a gene has become a cancer-causing gene because of mutations to growth factors or tumor-suppressor genes
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biotechnology
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the use of organisms to perform tasks for humans
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recombinant DNA
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to combine genes from different organisms or species
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plasmids
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small, circular DNA molecules that are seperate from the much larger bacterial chromosome within many bacteria
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restriction enzyme
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"cuts" a DNA molecules into fragments at specific points
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genomic library
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a complete collection of cloned DNA fragments from an organism
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nucleic acid probe
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a molecule that has been labeled with radioactivity, making it easy to detect
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genetically modified organism
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(GMO) any organism that has acquired one or more genes by artificial means
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transgenic
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a GMO that has recieved new genetic material came from a different species
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polymerase chain reaction
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(PCR) is a technique that makes billions of identical DNA molecules in just a few hours-->used to produce large enough samples of DNA for further analysis
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gel electrophoresis
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a technique for sorting DNA fragments by length (shorter fragments pass more quickly through electrically charged gel than longer fragments)
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genetic markers
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particular stretches of DNA that vary from person to person
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DNA fingerprint
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produced by each person's unique pattern of banding of DNA fragments
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operon
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a cluster of genes, along with its two control sequences
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promoter
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one control sequence that is a binding site for an enzyme needed in DNA transcription
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operator
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the other control sequence that switches the promotor on and off
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repressor
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a protein tht turns the operator on and off by binding to it
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gene expression
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the transcription and translation of genes into proteins
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transcription factors
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proteins that regulate promoter sequences of some genes
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cellular differentiation
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individual cells become more specialized in structure and function as the organism develops
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stem cells
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cells that remian able to differentiate into various other types of cells
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homeotic genes
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master control genes that produce proteins that regualte the expression of other genes
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evolution
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all of the changes that have transformed life over an immense time
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adaption
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an inherited characteristic that improves an organism's ability to survive and reproduce in a particular environment
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descent with modification
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specis living on the Earth today descended from earlier species
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natural selection
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the process by which individuals with inherited characteristics well-suited to the environment leave more offspring on average than do other individuals
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Charles Darwin
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sailed around the wrold on the Beagle. His observations of variation in birds and other prganisms led him to suggest that species change as they adapt to their changing environments=theory of evolution (1) descent with modification (2) natural selection
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fossils
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are preserved remains or markings left by organisms that lived in the past
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fossil record
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the collection of fossils recorded in rock layers over time
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extinct
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species that no longer exist
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homologous structures
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similar structures among related species
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vestigial structures
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homologous structures that have a major function in one species but not in a related species
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population
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a group of individuals of the same species living in the same area at the same time
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variation
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differences among members of the same species
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artificial selection
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selective breeding of plants and animals to produce offspring with traits that humans value
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gene pool
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consists of all the alleles, or different forms of genes, in all the individuals in a population
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microevolution
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a generation-to-generation change in the frequencies of alleles within a population
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Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
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populations that do not undergo change int heir gene pools-->not presently evolving
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genetic drift
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a change in gene pool due to chance
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gene flow
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the exchange of genes with another population
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fitness
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the contribution that an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation compared to the contribution of other individuals
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anitbiotics
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drugs that kill or slow the growth of bacteria
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biological species concept
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defines a species as a population or group of populations whose members have the ability to breed with one another in nature and produce fertile offspring
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speciation
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the origin of new species
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macroevolution
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major evolutionary changes such as speciation (exinction of species, evolution of new features i.e. wings)
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repreoductive isolation
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the inability of different species to interbreed
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geographic isolation
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Occurs when a population becomes seperated from the rest of the species due to geographic change or movement to an isolated place.
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adaptive radiation
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when populations of a new species evolve adaptions to a variety of different environment and form a diverse new species
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punctuated equilibrium
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long periods of little change are broken by shorter times od more rapid change
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emryology
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the study of how multicellular organisms develop from fertilized eggs to adults
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radiometric dating
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method based on the amount of radioactive isotopes in a fossil
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half-life
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the time i takes 50% of the original sample to decay
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geologic time scale
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organizes Earth's history into Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras.
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continental drift
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cause of changes in life forms the movement of Earth's ccontinents on large plates of crust
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mass extinction
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most often occurs at the end of eras. Provides surviving organisms new oppottunities and leads to adaptive radiation
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taxonomy
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a branch of biology that involves identification, naming, and classification of species. Assigns universal scientific name to each known species. Orgaizes diversity of life by classifying species into larger groups of related secies
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binomial
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two-part name created by Carolus Linnaeus for each species. helps in taxonomy.
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phylogenetic tree
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a diagram that shows hypothesized evolutionary relationships
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convergent evolution
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a process in which unrelated species from similar environemtn have adaptions that seem very similar
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analogous structures
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similar adaptions of convergent evolution
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derived characters
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homologous charcteristics that unite a group of organisms
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cladograms
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phylogenetic trees constructed froma series of two-way branch points. Bacteria, Archea, Eukarya
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stromatolites
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thin layers of sediment pressed tightly together
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Archea
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prokaryotes, may of which live in some of the most extreme conditions of the Earth. Has introns (noncoding portions of genes)
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Bacteria
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prokaryotes, introns absent. Bacterial wall contains polymer peptidoglycan
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three basic shapes of bacteria are:
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- spherical bacteria (cocci)
- rod-shaped bacteria (bacilli) - spiral-shaped bacteria (spirochetes) |
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two types of bacteria cell walls are:
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- peptidoglycan
- peptidoglycan and additional outer membrane |
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binary fission
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simple cell division of prokaryotes. Produces cells that are gentically identical
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Genetic mixing or recombination can happen in three ways:
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- transformation
- conjugation - transduction |
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transformation
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bacteria pick up pieces of DNA from the environment
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conjugation
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two bacterial cells tomproarily join and transfer genetic material
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transduction
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viruses tha infect bacteria carry genes from one cell and inject them into another
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endospores
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"resting cells" survive harsh conditions
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cyanobacteria
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a group of bacteria that generates oxygen as a waste product of photosynthesis
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bioremediation
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the use of organisms to remove pollutants from water, air and soil
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pathogens
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bacteria and other microorganisms that cause disease
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lytic cycle
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a phage attacxhes tot he host cell and injects its DNA into the host-->the host cell makes copies of viral DNA and viral p[roteins-->bursts open releases produced viruses
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lysogenic cycle
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a phage injects its genes into the host cell, and the viral DNA adds itself directly to the host cell's DNA. When bacterium reproduces, it copies viral DNA.
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retrovirus
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a virus that reverses the usual DNA-to-RNA flow of genetic information (HIV)
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vaccine
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is a deactivated variety or small prece of a pathogen that causes the immune system to defend against the actual pathogen
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anatomy
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the study of an organisms' structure
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phsiology
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the study of what structures do and how they do it- their function
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tissue
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a group of many similar cells that work together and perform a specific function
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organ
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several tissues that together perform a soecific task
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organ system
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multiple organs that together perform a necessary body function
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body's organ systems:
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circulatory, integumentary, skeletal, muscular, dgestive, nervous, respiratory, endocrine, lymphatic, immune, excretory, and reproductive
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epithelial tissue
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covers the surface of the body and lines the internal organs
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connective tissue
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hods together and supports other tissues (cushions, insulates, and connects organs)
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nervous tissue
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forms the communication system of the body
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three types of tissues:
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epithelial, connective, nervous
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three types of muscle tissue:
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skeletal, cardiac, smooth
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skeletal muscles
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made of skeletal muscle tissue, are attached to bones and enable various parts of the body to move
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cardiac muscles
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made up of cardiac muscle tissue and are found in the heart (involuntary)
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smooth muscles
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made of smooth muscle tissue and are found in the digestive system and most other organs (involuntary)
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hoemostasis
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when the body protects itself from chnage in the outside environment and provides a stable internal environment
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hormones
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chemical signals that trale through the bloodstreamto other parts of the body where they trigger particular responses (help maintain homeostasis)
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interstitial fluid
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solution that fills the gaps between cells
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integumentary system
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the body's outer covering (the skin)
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epidermis
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the outermost layer of skin (dead epithelial cells that flake off on top layer, bottom layer contains cells that produce melanin)
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melanin
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a protein the gives skin its color
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dermis
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lies beneath epidermis and made of mostly connective tissue (strength and elasticity, hair follicles, oil/sweat glands, muscles, nerves and blood vessels)
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hypodermis
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a issue layer beneath dermis that contains fat-storing cells and blood vessels (made up of protein called keratin)
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vertebra
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small, flat bones that make up the backbone
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cartilage
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a type of connective tissue that is softer than bone
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marrow
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specialized tissues within many bones( yellow: stored fat that reserves energy. red: cells that develop into red blood cells)
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joint
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where one bone meets another bone(immovable=skull)
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ligaments
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fibrous connective tissues that hold togeter bones in movable joints
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arthritis
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inflammation of the joints
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osteoprosis
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bones become thinner and break easily
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tendon
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a connective tissue that attaches a muscle and a bone
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muscle fiber
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a single long muscle cell that contains many nuclei
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myofibrils
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smaller fibers inside a muscle fiber
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sarcomeres
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bundlesof smaller fibers consisting in a single myofibril
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actin
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protein that make up thin filaments
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myosin
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protein that makes up thick filaments
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central nervous system
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(CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord, processes information
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peripheral nervous sytem (PNS)
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includes all the rest of the nervous system tissue
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stimulus
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recieved by PNS when sensory input occurs
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sensory receptors
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detect stimuli
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sensory neurons
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detect stimuli
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interneurons
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interpret sensory information
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motor neurons
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carry away response from CNS (motor output)
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reflex
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a rapid and automatic response
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dendrites
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recieve sinals for neuron and carry them toward cell body
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axon
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longer fiber tjay carries signals away from cell body and towards other cells
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myelin sheath
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cover axons
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nodes
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uncovered spaces that lie between section of myelin sheath. allow singlas to travel quickly by jumping from node to node
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resting potential
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the inside of a nerve cell is negative in electrical charge compared to the outside. greater concetration of sodium ions (Na+) outside than inside the cell
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depolarization
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the inside of the cell becomes positive compared to the outside
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threshold
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when neuron is stimulted to a certain level, additional Na+ rushes into the cell causing greaer depolarization
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action potential
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the stronger depolarization from threshold is the start of a nerve signal
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synaptic cleft
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the space between neurns that the chemical signal is carried
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neurotransmitters
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they are released at the end of the axon and cross the synaptic cleft to the next neuron
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somatic nervous system
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carries signals from CNS to skeletal muscles (voluntary actions)
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autonomic nervous system
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carries signals from CNS to organs and glands (involuntary actions)
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sympathetic division (of the autonomic nervous system)
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increases the level of activity in the body (except for digestion)
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parasympathetic division (of the autonomic nervous system)
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calms the body and returns it to regular function (increase digestion)
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cerebrum
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the largest and most complex part of the brain
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corpus callosum
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thick band of nerve fibers that connect the two hemispheres
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cerebral cortex
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the outside part of the cerebrum
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cerebellum
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coordinaes body movements
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brainstem
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filters all the sensory and motor information traveling to and from the brai. controls sleep and breathing
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thalamus
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filters information traveling to and from cerebral cortex. Blocks some signals and increases others
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hypothalamus
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helps regulate body temperature, blood pressure, hunger, thirst, emotions
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memory
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the ability to store and recall information from past experiences
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limbic system
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the region of the brain where connectionsbetween memory, emtions and senses are made.
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sensation
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awareness of sensory information
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perception
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meaningful interpretation of sensory information
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cornea
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clear area on surface of eye that light enters through
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pupil
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dark opening in the iris
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iris
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colored part of eye
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retina
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inner surface of the back of the eye
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cones
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distinguish colors
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rods
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sensitive to dim light
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auditory canal
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sound waves channeled through this to the eardrum
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eardrum
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sheet of tissue that vibrates when sound waves strike it
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cochlea
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a coiled tube that contains fluid and is lined with tiny hairs. Sound wave vibration move the fluid which thn move the hair which then send action potentials to the brain
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auditory tube
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lets air move between inner ear and throat
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tolerance
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more and more of the drug is needed to produce te smae effect
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addiction
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an uncontrollable dependance on a drug
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withdrawl
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symptoms of when the drug is not taken
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stimulants
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increase CNS activity and include caffeine, nicotine, and cocaine
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depressants
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decrease CNS activity. may interfere with coordination and judgement. include: alcohol, tranquilizers, marijuana
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opiates
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made from the opium poppy and act as natural brain chemicals and include: morphine and heroine. produce feelings of joy and block pain signals
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hallucinogens
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are substances such as LSD that cause user to see, hear and percieve things that do not exist
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ecstasy
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is a drug that is a stimulkant and a hallucinogen
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inalants
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aerosols that produce vapors that have mindaltering effects
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nutrition
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the process of mhow your body obtains raw materials from food
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four stages of nutrition:
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ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination
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ingestion
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the act of eating or drinking. Occurs in the mouth
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digestion
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the process of breaking food down into molecule small enough for the body to absorb. mechanical: chewing, churning. chemical: breaks down chemical bonds within larger molecules
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absorption
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cells take up the snall molecules
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elimination
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undigested material passes out of the bidy as waste
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alimentary canal
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tube in which digestion occurs
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six organs that make up the alimentary canal:
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mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine
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salivia
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a liquid containing digestive enzymes which begin the chemical digestion
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bolus
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chewed clump of food that the tongue pushes down the throat and enters the stomach
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stomach
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a stretchy muscular sac. Secretes digestive juices and acids, which continue chemical digestion. Muscles also create a churning motion that completes mechanicaldigestion
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chyme
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liguid food created in stomach from bolus
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small intestine
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a long tube where chemical digestion is completed and most nutrients are absorbed
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liver
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prodces a digestive juice called BILE that helps chemical digestion
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gallbladder
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sac-like structure that stores bile
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pancreas
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secretes enzymes into the small intestine that help complete chemical digestion (similar to liver)
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villi (villus)
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small, finger-like projections found in small intestine that increase the surface are. Filled with lympth vessels and blood vessels that absorb nutrients and carry them to cells throughout the body
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large intestine
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organ in which undigested material passes and which water is absorbed into the body
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feces
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undigested food material and other waste products in the large intestine
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peristalsis
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movement which allows feces to travel through the large intestine
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essential nutrients
|
materials that must be ingested because your cells cannot make them from other molecules
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Food Guide Pyramid
|
shows the recommended daily number of servings of different types of food
|
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malnutrition
|
a diet lacking one or more essential nutrients
|
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undernutrition
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a diet lacking enough Calories
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obesity
|
the condition of being seriosuly overweight (risk of diabetes)
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anorexia
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a psycological condition in which an eating disorder is formed and as a result, starve themselves and become extremely thin
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bulemia
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another psycological conditionin which an eating disorder is formed and as a reslt, binge (eat too much) and purge (rid themselves of the food by vomiting or using laxatives)
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blood
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a type of connective tissue made up of cells and liquid parts
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heart
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a muscular organ with four hollow chambers that pump blood throughout the body
|
|
three types of blood vessels:
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capillaries, veins, arteries
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capillaries
|
are microscopic vessels through which nutrients, oxygen, and wastes move beween blood and interstitial fluid
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arteries
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are thick-walled vessels that carry blood from heart to capillaries. thicker walls than capillaries
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veins
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are vessels that carry blood from capillaries to the heart (oxygen-depleted blood). Has valves
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lymph
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fluid that reenters capillary at the vein end of the capillary-->the rest of the fluid is collected by vessels that make up the lmphatic system-->once inside the lymphatic system near the heart, this fluid is called lymph. Fluid is reused
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pulmonary circuit
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carries blood between heart and lungs
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systemic circuit
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carries blood between the heart and the rest of the body
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aorta
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large artery in which oxygen-rich blood leaves the heart
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atria (atrium)
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the two upper chambers of the heart that recieve blood returning to the heart
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ventricles
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the two lower chambers that the atria pump blood into. Ventricles pump blood ut of the heart
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valves
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the flaps of tissue on the heart that prevent blood from flowing backward
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pacemaker
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the region of the heart that sends out electrical impulses that make the atria contract
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AV node
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another region in which the impulses from the pacemakers cause the ventricles to contract
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systolic pressure
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the first number of bloog pressure that is produced when the ventricles contract
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diastolic pressure
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the second number that is produced when the heart relaxes
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plasma
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a solution of water, dissolved salts, proteins and other substances. makes up 55% of blood volume
|
|
red blood cells (RBC)
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carry oxygen from the lungs to all the tissues of the body. Contains hemoglobin that attracts oxygen
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hemoglobin
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a rotein that stores oxygen for delivery to cells
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white blood cells
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leukocytes. Fight infection and prevent the growth of cancer
|
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platelets
|
blood cells that are responsible for blood clotting. Release clotting factors that form protein, fibrin. Fibrin then traps platelets and blood cells, forming a clot
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|
plaque
|
deposits of fat and minerals
|
|
cardiovascular disease
|
illness of the heart and/or blood vessels caused by plaque build up
|
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atherosclerosis
|
narrowing of arteries by plaque buildup
|
|
heart attack
|
a caused by a blood clot that blocks an artery
|
|
arteiosclerosis
|
when plaque buildup hardens over time-->increases blood pressure
|
|
hypertension
|
a person with blood pressure of 140/90 or higher for and extended period of time
|
|
stroke
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a blood clot in an artery going to the brain
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|
name eight steps in the process of retrieving oxygen:
|
nose/mouth, oharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
|
|
pharynx
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a chamber in the upper throat
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epiglottis
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a flap of tisue that covers the air pathway and prevents water or food from entering
|
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larynx
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voice box
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red blood cells (RBC)
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carry oxygen from the lungs to all the tissues of the body. Contains hemoglobin that attracts oxygen
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hemoglobin
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a rotein that stores oxygen for delivery to cells
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white blood cells
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leukocytes. Fight infection and prevent the growth of cancer
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platelets
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blood cells that are responsible for blood clotting. Release clotting factors that form protein, fibrin. Fibrin then traps platelets and blood cells, forming a clot
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plaque
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deposits of fat and minerals
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cardiovascular disease
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illness of the heart and/or blood vessels caused by plaque build up
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atherosclerosis
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narrowing of arteries by plaque buildup
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heart attack
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a caused by a blood clot that blocks an artery
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arteiosclerosis
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when plaque buildup hardens over time-->increases blood pressure
|
|
hypertension
|
a person with blood pressure of 140/90 or higher for and extended period of time
|
|
stroke
|
a blood clot in an artery going to the brain
|
|
name eight steps in the process of retrieving oxygen:
|
nose/mouth, oharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
|
|
pharynx
|
a chamber in the upper throat
|
|
epiglottis
|
a flap of tisue that covers the air pathway and prevents water or food from entering
|
|
larynx
|
voice box
|
|
red blood cells (RBC)
|
carry oxygen from the lungs to all the tissues of the body. Contains hemoglobin that attracts oxygen
|
|
hemoglobin
|
a rotein that stores oxygen for delivery to cells
|
|
white blood cells
|
leukocytes. Fight infection and prevent the growth of cancer
|
|
platelets
|
blood cells that are responsible for blood clotting. Release clotting factors that form protein, fibrin. Fibrin then traps platelets and blood cells, forming a clot
|
|
plaque
|
deposits of fat and minerals
|
|
cardiovascular disease
|
illness of the heart and/or blood vessels caused by plaque build up
|
|
atherosclerosis
|
narrowing of arteries by plaque buildup
|
|
heart attack
|
a caused by a blood clot that blocks an artery
|
|
arteiosclerosis
|
when plaque buildup hardens over time-->increases blood pressure
|
|
hypertension
|
a person with blood pressure of 140/90 or higher for and extended period of time
|
|
stroke
|
a blood clot in an artery going to the brain
|
|
name eight steps in the process of retrieving oxygen:
|
nose/mouth, oharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
|
|
pharynx
|
a chamber in the upper throat
|
|
epiglottis
|
a flap of tisue that covers the air pathway and prevents water or food from entering
|
|
larynx
|
voice box
|
|
trachea
|
windpipe
|
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bronchi
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air tubes branch from trachea to lungs
|
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bronchioles
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smaller air tubes that branch from bronchi
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alveoli
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air sacs at the end of each bronchiole
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diaphragm
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a sheet of muscle that when you inhale, contracts and chest expands, causing air to rush into lungs. and when you exhale, the diaphragm relaxes as the chest contracts, causing air to rush out of the lungs
|
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what are two diseases caused by smoking?
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lung cancer and emphysema
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emphysema
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a disease that develops when tobacco smoke causes the walls of the alveoli to lose their flexibilty--shortage of breath
|
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infectious diseases
|
disease caused by pathogens
|
|
the germ theory of disease
|
states that infectious disease is caused by pathogens that can spread disease from one organism to another
|
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what are the ways infectious dieases can be spread?
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physical contact, inhaling, contaminated water or food, sexual contact, animals
|
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nonspecific defenses
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barriers that do not distinguish one invader from another.
|
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first line of defense
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skin: phyisical barrier, chemical: sweat/saliva, tears that contain enzyme lysosome
|
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second line of defense
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nonspecific. certain white blood cells and inflammatory response
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phagocytosis
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way in which certain white blood cells destroy microorganisms--engulfing or swallowing them
|
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interferon
|
prtein that prevents viruses from reproducing
|
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inflammatory response
|
accompanied by redness, heat, swelling and pain. mast cells release histamine
|
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histamines
|
released by mast cells and cause nearby blood vessels to expand, allowing more blood to flow to injured tissues
|
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third line of defense
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immune system: recognizes and defends against soecific pathogens, cancer cells, and certain chemicals
|
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immunity
|
your body is resistant to the pathogen that causes a specific disease
|
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antigen
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a large molecule that cause immune response
|
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antibody
|
a protein found on the surface of a certain white blood cells or blood plasma. Attachess to an antigen molecule with matching shape and destroys invader/makes it harmless
|
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two types of white blood cells:
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B cells and T cells
|
|
B cells
|
play a key role in humoral immunity
|
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T cells
|
play a major role in cell-mediated immunity
|
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humoral immunity
|
specific immunity provided by B cells that produce antibodies that circulate in body fluids-->antigen binds to antibody-->B cells make millions of clones-->develop into plasmma cells
|
|
plasma cells
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produce antibodies to antigen
|
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cell-mediated immunity
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T cells attacking body cells that are infected with a pathogen-->antigens attach to antibody on T cell -->clones itself-->cytotoxic T cells
|
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cytotix T cells
|
attack cells infected with pathogen, destroy cancer cells
|
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helper T cell
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secretes chemicals that help T and B cells to respond to pathogens
|
|
memory cells
|
make clones that can fight the same pathogen if it enters the body again
|
|
vaccine
|
a dose of a pathogen or part of a pathogen that has been disabled or destroyed so it is no longer harmful
|
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active immunity
|
whenever the body produces antibodies against infection
|
|
passive immunity
|
recieves antibodies for a particular disease from another source (lasts for a short amount of time)
|
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allergy
|
an abnormal reaction to non-harmful antigen. mast cells produce histamines-->inflammatory response
|
|
autoimmune disease
|
condition in which the immune system attacks some of the body's own molecules
|
|
AIDS
|
disease caused by HIV virus-->destorys helper T cells, body becomes unable to defend itself
|
|
negative feedback
|
a change that triggers a response that counteracts the change
|
|
urea
|
ammonia and carbon dioxide formed within liver
|
|
excretion
|
removal of nitrogen-containing wastes (urea) from body
|
|
hormones
|
trigger many of the responses that maintain homeostasis. Regulate blood presssure, heart rate, digestion, other body functions
|
|
endocrine glands
|
organs that secrete hormones
|
|
target cells
|
certain cells that the hormones only affect
|
|
kidneys
|
main organs of the excretory system. Filter blood and produce urine
|
|
urine
|
a liquid made of ater, urea, and other waste products
|
|
ureter
|
tube which carries urine from kidneys to urinary bladder
|
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urinary bladder
|
a sac that stores urine until it leaves the body
|
|
urethra
|
tube in which urine leaves the body
|
|
nephrons
|
tiny tubes within kidneys that filter blood and excrete urine in a four-step process
|
|
what is the four-step process that the nephrons conduct?
|
- filtration, reabsorption, secretion, excretion
|
|
glomerulus
|
a tiny ball of capillaries that houses filtration
|
|
filtrate
|
fluid forced through capillary walls
|
|
reabsorption
|
water and dissolved nutrients are reabsorbed from the filtrate into the blood
|
|
secretion
|
certain substances are removed from the blood and added to the filtrate
|
|
excretion
|
urine leaves the body
|
|
ADH
|
hormone produced by hypothalamus when water level falls below normal and stimulates kidneys to produce more concentrated urine-->less water in urine
|
|
dialysis
|
patient's blood is pumped through a machine that functions like a kidney in removing wastes (another treatment is kidney transplant)
|
|
glycogen
|
liver changes excss glucose to glycogen -->stores it and is broken down into gluccose whenever needed
|
|
hepatitis
|
liver diease that is often caused by a virus. spread through sexual contact and sharing drug needles
|
|
cirrhosis
|
occurs when liver is so scarred that it can no longer function effectively. symptoms: internal bleeding, difficulty digesting fats
|
|
steroid hormones
|
can cross plasma membrane and influence geness and production of proteins
|
|
nonsteroid hormones
|
cannot cross plasma membranes. influence cell activites indirectly through other molecules inside cell (secondary messengers)
|
|
hypothalamus
|
make hormones that direct activities of many endocrine glands (pituaitary gland)
|
|
releasing hormones
|
stimulate pituitary to secrete its own hormones
|
|
pituitary gland
|
secretes hormones that influence other glands and body functions
|
|
thyroid
|
secretes hormones that affect almost every tissue in the body. Hleps maintain normal blood pressure, heart rate, digestion, and reproductive functions
|
|
pancreas
|
secretes two hormones that regulate amount of glucose in body: insulin and glucogen
|
|
insulin
|
decreases blood glucose by increasing the amount of glucose that eneters body cells
|
|
glucogen
|
increases blood glucose by stimulating liver cells to break ddown glycogen into glucose
|
|
diabetes
|
a disease in which body cells are unable to absorb glucose from the blood
|
|
adrenal glands
|
produce hormones in response to stress. some hormones are fast-acting and have a short-term effect
|
|
epinephrine
|
stimulates faster breathing and heart rate
|
|
cortiosteroids
|
provide slower, longer-acting response to stress
|
|
what are the female reprodductive structures?
|
- ovaries, oviducts, uterus and vagina
|
|
ovaries
|
two organs where eggs are produced
|
|
follicle
|
cluster of cells that contain each egg
|
|
oviduct
|
a tube that openss near each ovary
|
|
uterus
|
hollow organ that protects the developing baby
|
|
cervix
|
connects uterus to the vagina
|
|
vagina
|
flexible organ that openss to the outside
|
|
what are the male reproductive structures?
|
- testes, scrotum, epididymis, vas deferns, penis
|
|
testes
|
two organs in which sperm begins development
|
|
scrotum
|
sac-like structure that contains testes
|
|
epididymis
|
a coiled tube attached to each of the testes where sperm completes its development
|
|
vas deferens
|
where muscle contractions are forced through ejaculation
|
|
penis
|
made of tissue that fills with blood-->causing an erection
|
|
ovulation
|
when the egg is released from the ovary once a month
|
|
ovum
|
mature egg is formed by being penetrated by a sperm
|
|
ovarian cycle
|
refers to changes in the ovaries that occur in a mature female each month. controlled by hormones
|
|
menstrual cycle
|
refers to changes in uterus. controlled by hormones
|
|
endometrium
|
lining of the uterus
|
|
FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)
|
released by pituitary gland signaled by hypothalamus when estrogen levels are low-->FSH stimulates a follicle and its egg to mature
|
|
menustration
|
when low estrogen levels cause lining of uterus (endometrium) to break down and shed
|
|
corpus luteum
|
when LH (luteinizing hormone) stimulates the follicle to release its egg-->which secretes estrogen and progesterone. structure is then called corpus luteum
|
|
FSH and LH in males:
|
FSH stimulates testes to produce sperm. LH stimulates testes to produce testosterone
|
|
testoserone
|
IN MALES. hormone that helps stimulate sperm production in the testes
|
|
estrogen and progesterone
|
IN FEMALES. hormones that stimulate he endometrium to prepare for pregnancy. (if pregnancy does not occur, corpus luteum breaks down and stops secreting hormones-->falling estrogen levels start cycle over again)
|
|
fertilization
|
occurs when egg and sperm cells join
|
|
zygote
|
fertilized egg cell
|
|
cleavage
|
when the egg starts dividing rapidly after 36 hours of fertilization
|
|
embryo
|
zygote becomess embryo once cleavage begins and until first body structure appears
|
|
blastocyst
|
hollow ball of cells thaat cleavage produces
|
|
trophoblast
|
outer layer of blastocyst (inner layer eventually forms organism)
|
|
implantation
|
the imbedding of the blastocyst in the endometrium
|
|
twins (fraternal)
|
two embryos
|
|
identical twins
|
one embryo splitting intwo
|