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313 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Spirulina
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a spiral-shaped cyanobacteria that is rich source of protein and carotenoids
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Archaea
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lack peptidoglycan in cell walls, ether-linked branched lipids in cell membranes
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Euryarcheota
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sub group of Archaea; obligate anaerobes
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heterotroph
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organism requires preformed organic materials as food
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chemoheterotroph
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organism must obtain both carbon and energy from organic sources
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photoheterotroph
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an organism that obtains energy from light but must obtain its carbon from organic sources
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autotroph
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an organisms that lives exclusively on inorganic materials, water and some energy source such as sunlight
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chemoautotroph
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an organism that uses CO2 as a carbon source and obtains energy by oxidizing inorganic sources from the environment
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photoautotroph
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an organism that obtains energy from light and carbon from CO2
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saprobe
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organism contains carbon and energy from dead organic matter
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parasite
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organism that infects a living organism and consumes parts of the organism
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Dinoflagellates
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some are bioluminescent while others, caused red tides and produce toxins that accumulate in shellfish that if eat, can poison humans
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Physarum
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plasmodium slime mold
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Chlorophyta
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green algae
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Chondrus crispus
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Irish moss
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Porphyra
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nori
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polyploidy (plants section)
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chromosome alteration in which the organism posses more than two complete sets of chromosomes
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dikaryotic (n + n)
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cells in certain types of fungi (basdiomycetes) with two separate haploid nuclei per cell
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Alternation of generations
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multicellular haploid and diploid phases that alternate in sexual life cycles
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Syngamy
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two gametes fuse
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Chlamydomonas
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life cycle with both haploid and diploid unicellular phases and DOES NOT represent alternation of generations; unicellular green algae
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isomorphic alternation of generations
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haploid and diploid generations look similar morphologically (ex. ulva)
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heteromorphic alternation of generations with dominant haploid gametophyte
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bryophytes (small sporophyte is dependent on larger gametophyte)
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heteromorphic alternation of generations with dominant diploid sporophyte
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mature haploid gametophyte not dependent on dominant mature sporophyte (Laminaria, pteridophytes, brown algae kelp)
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heteromorphic alternation of generations with dominant diploid sporophyte (non-independent gametophyte)
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very reduced, tiny, short-lived haploid gametophyte dependent on sporophyte (gymnosperms, angiosperms)
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Slime molds
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Physarum is a slime mold in the lab that demonstrates protoplasmic streaming under the microscope
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Saprolgenia
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fly fungus; water mold; aquatic saprobe that is NOT photosynthetic
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brown algae
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contains chlorophyll A and C
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red algae (Rhodophyta)
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contains chlorophyll A and phycobilins, phycoerythrin and phycocyanin
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agar
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food stabilizer and emulsifer
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carageenan
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extracted from red algae, Irish "moss" and is used as a food stabilizer
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Nori
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from red algae porphyra
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dulse
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edible red algae
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green algae (Chlorophyta)
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probable precusor to vascular land plants; contains chlorophylls A and B
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Spirogrya
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microscopic filamentous green algae common in cool ponds; single spiral chloroplast in each cell
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volvox
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microscopic colonial green algae; each colony is motile
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Chlamydomonas
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unicellular green algae; can form dense algal blooms on high altitude snow fields called "watermelon snow"; no alternation of generations
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ulva lactuca
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sea lettuce; demonstrates isomorphic alternation of generations
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Fungi
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chitin in cell walls of fungi and in exoskeletons of invertebrates; flagella, store carbon by synthesizing glycogn, absorb nutrients from dead/living organisms
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plants
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cellulose in cell walls, store carbon by synthesizing starch, photosynthesis
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multicellular mycelia
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mushrooms; composed of filaments known as hyphae
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single-celled yeasts
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baker's yeast, candida albicans
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hyphae
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long narrow tubular filaments optimizes surface area to volume ratio which enhances absorption
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extracellular digestion by saprophytic fungi
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fungi secrete digestive enzymes outside of their hyphae that breakdwon cellulose, starch, lignin, proteins, and RNA into smaller compounds such as sugars, amino acids, and nucleic acids
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Lignin degradation
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hyphae excrete lignin peroxidase into extracellular environment
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mychorrihizae
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common association between fungi and land plant roots; fungi make nitrogen and phosphorous available to plants and receive sugar and carbon sources from plant in exchange
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ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF)
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dense network of hyphae around roots, basidiomycetes from this type of association; found in almost all tree species in temperate and boreal forests; short growing season in temperate areas
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Arbuscular mychorrhizal fungi (AMF)
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grow in cells of root tissue, found in 80% of plant species, glomeromycetes fungi, supplies plants with phosphorous; found in grasslands and forests in warm and tropical habitats where growing season is long
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Chytridiomycota
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only aquatic fungi group, causes infection in mountain yellow-legged frogs in Sierra Nevada mountains of CA
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Zygomycota
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most live in soil; zygote with tough outer seed coat, some have mutualistic AMF relationships
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Rhizopus stolonifer
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Zygomycota that lives on bread
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Glomerulomycota
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all form distinct types of endomycorrhizae called AMF; tips of hyphae push into plant root cells and branch into treelike structures called arbuscules
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Ascomycota
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sac fungi; some are microscopic yeast
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Basidiomycota
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club-fungi, club-like spore forming structures
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plasmogamy
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hyphae from different mating types fuse and mix their cytoplasm
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dikaryotic hyphae
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each cell produced after initial fusion contains a haploid nucleus from each plant
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Basidia
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specialized club-like cells form on hyphae tips
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candida albicans
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cutaneous, mucocutaneous, systemic
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how can fungi produce disease in humans?
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1. invade keratinous skin structures. 2. subcutaneous
3. nasal mucosa site of initial mycotic infection 4. systemic mycoses acquired by spore inhalation |
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Coccidiodomycosis
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Valley Fever
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Adaptations to life on land
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apical meristems of shoots and roots; cuticle, stomata, pigments that protect against UV radiation, optimize photosynthesis
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cuticle
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waxy covering that retards desiccation
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archegonia
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gametangia that encloses egg
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antheridia
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encloses sperm
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vascular tissue
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enable transport of water against gravity from tissues in contact with wet soil to tissues in contact with air
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hydroids
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tiny channels through which water travels in mosses
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tracheids
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specialized conducting cells in pteridophytes and gymnosperms
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vessels
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specialized conducting cells in angiosperms
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lignin
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strengthens cell walls of vascular conducting xylem and provides rigid structural support
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Liverworts (Marchantia)
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flat thallus with dichotomous branching
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Mosses
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hydroids (primitive vascular tissue), green leaf bearing structure is the gametophyte
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sphagnum moss
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common name is peat moss; exists mostly in wetland bogs and northern latitudes -> used to treat diaper rashes, athletes foot and to dress wounds
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peat
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partially decomposed plant material resulting from rapidly growing upper layers of Spagnum moss that compress deeper lying layers
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pteridophytes
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ferns or seedless tracheophytes; sporophytes much larger than gametophytes
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tracheophytes
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contains tracheids which are principal water conducting element of the xylem (water and mineral transport, rigid structural support)
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Lycophyta
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lycopodium (club moss), Selaginella (spike moss), Isoetes (quillwort)
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Equistem
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simple leaves in whorl used to scour pans and as diuretic
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sori
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clusters of sporangia under leaf surface
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frond
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fern leaf
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crozier/fiddlehead
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developing frond
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sporophyll
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frong that produces spores
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sporangia
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spore producing structures that are often aggregated under the leaf into patches called sori
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homosporous
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terrestrial pteridophytes
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heterosporous
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aquatic ferns (ex. azolla nad marsilea), gymnosperms and angiosperms
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homospory
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plants in which sporophyte produce a single type of spore that develops into a bisexual gametophyte with male and female organs
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heterospory
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plants in which sporophyte produces two kinds of spores from separate male and female sporangia that develop into unisexual female/male gametophytes
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azolla
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floating water fern with a symbiotic relationship with cyanobacteria
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gymnosperm adaptations
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tiny pollen that is mainly transmitted by wind or animals, seed development
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seed
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structure that encloses and protects the embryo
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Cycadophyta
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most primitive living seed plant
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Ginkgophyta
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ginkgo biloba is the only species in this group, male and female unisexual trees with unisexual cones
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Gnetophytes
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only gymnosperm group that contains vessels in their xylem
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Pacific yew
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fleshy female seed cones; leaves and bark are sources of anti-cancer drug taxol
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megasporophylls
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a leaf bearing a megasporangium
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microphyle
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small pore in the integument that faces the central axis of the cone
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ovule
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integument and its contents (megasporangium, megagametophyte, and/or egg)
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gymnosperm seed
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seed typically contains a 2N diploid embryo which is nourished by the remains of the 1N haploid megagametophyte and develops within the confines of the 2N diploid seed coat; embryo consists of a single axis with root and shoot apical meristems and several cotyledons at time of seed dispersal
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Endosperm
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triploid 3N tissue in an angiosperm seed
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ANITA grade
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monocolpate pollen grains with single, long grooved aperture; some lack vessels or have primitive vessels
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Magnoliid complex
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monophyletic, many petals usually arranged spirally or in whorls of three; filament is poorly differentiated from anther
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monocots
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monocolpate pollen, one cotyledon in embryo, first root in cotyledon is short-lived, stems with scattered vascular bundles and no secondary growth, parallel leaf venation, fibrous root system, floral parts in multiples of three
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eudicots
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tricolpate pollen, two cotyledons in embryo, leaf venation is reticulate or net-like, stems with vascular bundles in circular pattern with secondary growth, first root of dicot embryo is long-lived and develops into taproot system, floral parts usually in multipes of 4's or 5's, often have radial symmetry, some eudicots have many petals
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ANITA grade
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earliest basal angiosperms, not monocot or eudicot; have four nucleate female gametophytes and DIPLOID endosperms
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cotyledon
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small leaf of plant embryo that stores nutrients and can be photosynthetic
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pedicel
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stalk of flower
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recepticle
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portion of pedicel to which floral parts are attached
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perianth
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collectively made up of sepals and petals
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sepals (collectively the calyx)
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outer and lowest on axis, usually green
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petals (collectively the corolla)
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often large and colorful to attract pollinators; non-bright green colors
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filament
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supporting stalk
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stamens
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consists of filament, four chambered anther (microsporangium equivalent)
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carpels
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female (inner and higher on axis)
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tapetum
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layer of cells that supplies nutrients to developing pollen grains
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generative cell
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goes through mitotic division to produce two sperms formed within the mature megagametophyte
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vegetative cell
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develops hard protective coat in pollen grain and forms a pollen tube when the pollen grain germinates within the three celled microgametophyte
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Brassinosteroid hormones
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supports elongation of pollen tubes
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carpels
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megasporophylls/female structures collectively called the gynoecium or pistil, most apical of four floral structures on floral axis, may be one or more carpels per flower and may be separate or fused
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stigma
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top sticky part that recieves the pollen
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style
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pollen tube grows down through style
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ovary
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bottom part of the carpel which contains ovules that develop into seeds
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ovule
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where meiosis occurs and the female gametophyte is produced
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placenta
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portion of ovary to which the ovules are attached
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multicellular female gametophyte (angiosperms)
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consists of 7 cells with 8 nuclei
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complete flowers
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contain all four kinds of appendages
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incomplete flowers
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lack one or more types of appendages
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perfect flowers
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bisexual, hermaphroditic (have both functional stamens and carpels)
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imperfect flowers
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unisexual, missing either stamens or carpels
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monoecious plants
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contain both male and female unisexual flowers on the same plant
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dioecious
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contain male and female unisexual flowers on separate plants
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Structures that reward polinators (4)
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sugar rich nectar, protein rich pollen grains, site for reproduction for the pollinator, shelter for polinator
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Things that attract pollinators to flower
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colorful petals or other flower appendages, fragrance, shape/structure of flower, nectar guides
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red petals
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attracts birds
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white petals
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attracts moths and bats
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nectar guides
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color and shape patterns on the flower that orient the pollinator to the nectar in the flower
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mimickry/pseudocopulation
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some flowers use mimickry to look and smell like females of certain insect species and the male insect attempts to copulate on the flower
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inflorescence
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many flowers clustered together are more visible and fragrant
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panicle
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main axis has branches with flowers on branches
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raceme
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single main axis stalk with flowers attached along stalk
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umbel
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all flower stalks come from one point
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ray flowers
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the yellow flowers of the sunflower
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disc flowers
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the central disc shaped flowers in the middle of the sunflower from which the sunflower seeds/fruits develop
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methods to prevent self-fertilization
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stamens/stigmas at different heights on same flower or mature at different times, dioecious, self-incompatibility
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angiosperm ovule
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structure that contains the gametophytes and within the gametophyte, an egg (ovum)
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funiculus
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stalk that attaches angiosperm ovules to the placenta
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double ferilization
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one sperm nucleus unites with egg to form zygote, other sperm fuses with two polar nuclei to form endosperm (triploid/3N)
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integument
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outer layer of tissue in ovule which becomes seed coat
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carpel
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becomes pericarp fruit tissue that encloses the seed
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terminal cell
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cell mass (precusor to embryo development)
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basal cell
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suspensor (a row of single cells which provide nutrient transfer from parent to embryo
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procambium meristems
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vascular tissue of stems and roots
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ground meristems
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ground tissue
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protoderm meristems
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epidermis of stems and roots
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epicotyl
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portion of embryonic axis above attachment of cotyledons
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plumule
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top of epicotyl consisting of shoot tip with a pair of miniature leaves
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hypocotyl
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portion of embryonic axis below attachment of coyledons (seed stem)
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radicle
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seed root; terminal part of hypocotyls
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cotyledons (eudicot)
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seed leaves that absorb nutrients from the endosperm before the seed reaches maturity (euidcots only)
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scutellum
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single cotyledon
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shoot
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portion of embryonic axis above attachment of cotyledon
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plumule
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shoot tip with miniature leaf
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coleoptile
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sheath that covers young shoot
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hypocotyl
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portion of embryonic axis below attachment of cotyledons
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radicle
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seed root; terminal part of hypocotyls
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coleorhiza
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sheath that covers the young root
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fruit tissue
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ovary develops into the fruit tissue which may be soft or HARD
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components of seed
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embryo, endosperm and integuments of the ovule develop into mature seed and become surrounded by a tough seed coat; ovary enlarges around ovules/seed to form pericarp
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fruit
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pericarp with enclosed seeds
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ethylene
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plant hormone that promotes fruit ripening, leaf abscission, senescence and inhibits stem elongation and gravitropism
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simple fruit
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form from single carpel in one flower or multiple fused carpels from the same flower
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aggregate fruits
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groups of simple fruits that form separate carpels on one flower
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multiple fruits
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formed from the fusion of ovaries of mutltiple different flowers on an inflorescence
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accessory fruits
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derived from parts in addition to carpels and seed
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germination
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begins with the uptake of water by the seed which activates enzymes that breakdown stored nutrients; when radicle emerges from the seed and begins to push into ground, germination is complete
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gibberellic acid
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promotes seed elongation, bud elongation, stem elongation, flowers and fruiting
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abscisic acid
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inhibits growth and stem elongation, supports seed dormancy, inhibits seed germination, closure of stomata in response to water stress
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axillary buds
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produce lateral shoots or branches with own meristems at tips
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shoot
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terminal bud with apical meristems
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lateral buds
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axillary buds
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node
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site of lateral buds on shoot
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internode
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distance btw. two nodes
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auxin
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apical domiance by supporting activity of apical meristems, promotes phototropism, gravitropism, and stem/cell elongation
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brassinosteroids
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support elongation of pollen tubes, stem, xylem, inhibits leaf abscission
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cytokinins
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promote cell division, lateral bud outgrowth; inhibits leaf senescence and abscission
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petiole
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leaf stalk
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leaf abscission
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causes leaf to fall off
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tendrils
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modified leaf structures that wrap around adjacent stems and other structures
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spines
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modified leaves on cacti
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bracts
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some plants have colorful modified leaves around flowers that serve to attract pollinators
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cuticle
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matrix of cross-linked lipid molecules impregnated with extremely long-chained lipids functions as a protective layer around the outside of the leaf
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stoma
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guard cells and pores
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guard cells
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pair of bean shaped cells
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pore
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opening between guard cells
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flavonoid pigment
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absorbs UV light
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parenchyma cells
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most common type of cell in plants; thin walled cell found in leaves, centers of stems and roots, and in fruits, full of chloroplasts
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collencyhma cells
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thickened cell walls, serves to stiffen leaves and stems and support to growing plant parts, found in strands along leaf veins and stalks
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sclerenchyma cells
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thick walled type of plant that provides support and often contains lignin
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fiber cells
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lignified cell type; slender, tapered sclerenchyma cells that occur in bundles, function in mechanical support and reinforces the xylem
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ground tissue
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plant tissue insides the epidermis except for vascular tissue and can consist of the parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma cells
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cortex
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ground tissue inside epidermis that extends to concentric rings of vascular bundle
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pith
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central portion of stem made of ground tissue that is typically parenchyma cells
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rhizomes
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underground stem that prodcues vertical above ground shoots from its axillary buds
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stolons
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horizontal above ground shoots (runners) that grow along the surface of the ground and can result in asexual reproduction
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tubers
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enlarged ends of rhizomes or stolons specialized for food storage
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phloem
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transports sugars
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xylem
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transports water and minerals
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casparian strip
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suberin waterproof seal, regulates fluid and ion transport to vascular tisues
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pericycle
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layer just inside endodermis, one or more layers of undifferentiated cells, tissue from which lateral roots arise and contributes to secondary growth
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prop roots
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aerial above grund roots that support tall, top heavy plants
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storage roots
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plants that store food and water in their roots
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pneumatophores
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air roots; roots project above water surface enabling them to obtain oxygen (swampy areas)
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buttress roots
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aerial roots that support the tall trunks of certain tropical trees
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secondary growth
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increases width of stem or trunk, new cells originate from vascular cambium
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cork cambium meristems
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secondary tissue for cork and bark production
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bark
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tissue outside of vascular cambium and made up of secondary phloem and cork
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sieve tube member
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elongated food conducting plant cells with clusters or pores at both ends allowing sap to flow to adjacent cells
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sieve tubes
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transport sugar as main function
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companion cells
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specialized cells found adjacent to sieve tube member
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tracheid cells
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elongated water conducting cell has gaps in its cell wall to allow water movement from one cell to the next
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vessel cell element
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elongated water conducting cell with gaps in the cell wall at both ends
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vessels
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vessel cells arranged end to end (gnetophytes and angiosperms)
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rays
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thin walled cells originating in vascular cambium, alive when functional and produced by secondary growth, transverse movement of fluids in tree/stem trunk
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deduction
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predicting specific outcomes from general models
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induction
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generalizing from specific observations to more general models
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replicates
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separate units of study that are treated identically by ecologists in order to assess variability from factors that we didn't manipulate
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controls
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unmanipulated units that provide a baseline for comparison, and understanding of how organisms or systems will change over space or time independent of experimental treatments
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statistics
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tools for distinguishing signals from noise between treatments are greater than differences within treatments
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models
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verbal or mathematical simplifications of reality, intended to capture key processes driving system change over time
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hypothesis
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suggested explanations subject to test (falsifiable)
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reductionist approaches
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seeking mechanisms, casual responses
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holistic approaches
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determining boundaries of the system necessary for understanding and predicting outcomes of ecological interactions in the real world
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zoom lens ecology
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focus in for mechanism, zoom out for context and consequences
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how to deal with ecological complexity
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seek simplicity and mistrust it
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ecological forecasting
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attempts at prediction and useful postdiction
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adiabatic cooling
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rising air experiences lower atmospheric pressure, expands in volume, losing temperature
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dew point
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temperature to which the air would have to cool (at constant pressure and constant barometric pressure) in order to reach saturation at which the air is holding the max. temperature and pressure. if the air cools below the dew point moisture must be removed from the air which is accomplished by condensation
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coriolis effect
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earth is a sphere; if an object moves north, earth beneath moves more slowly so it veers right, if it moves north towards the equator, also goes right. reverse is true in southern hemisphere
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upweling
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winds displace ocean water off the west coast of N. and S. America causing upwelling: cold, nutrient rich water pulled up to replace displace surface water
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mediterranean climate
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if land warmer than ocean, moisture not dropped -> summer drought; if land cooler than ocean, moisture dropped -> winter rains
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thermocline
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stratum of rapid temperature change. can separate oxygenated from hypoxic habitat
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eutrophic
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nutrient rich, likely to produce noxious or harmful algal blooms
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mesotrophic
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intermediate nutrient concentrations
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oligotrophic
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low nutrient concentrations, very clear water
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downstream
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concentrative, fluxes of water, sediment, solutes, detritus, and passive organisms
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upstream and upslope
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dispersive, backflows of mobile organisms such as salmon
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confluence nods
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pulses of enrichment, adjacency of contrasting habitats
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hyporheic
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region beneath and lateral to a stream bed, where there is mixing of shallow groundwater and surface water
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detritus
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dead organic matter
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estuary
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where rivers empty into oceans; fresh water meets salt water (tidal prisms with heavier saltier water underneath)
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tidal prism
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wedge of fresh water overlies denser salt water
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neritic
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nearshore subtidal
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plankton
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passive drifters
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nekton
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active swimmers
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benthos
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life on substrate or bed of sea, lake, springs or rivers and streams
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pelagic
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offshore, beyond continental shelf
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crown eukaryotes
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metazoa (animals), fungi, green plants, red algade, alveolates, stramenopiles
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replicator
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an entity that passes its structure with high fidelity
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lineage
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a sequences of ancestor/descendent replicators
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interactor
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an entity that interacts with other entities such that replication is differential evolution by natural selection
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catastrophism
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each boundary between sedimentary rock represents a catastrophe
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gradualism
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profound change can take place through the cumulative effect of low but continuous processes
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uniformitarianism
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changes in Earth's surface can result from slow continuous actions still operating today
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ontology
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background theories stating what kinds of entities exists, what are their fundamental meanings and relationships
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epistemology
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background theories stating what kinds of empirical operations and methods can be used to discover the underlying ontological entities and relationships
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auxiliary hypothesis
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hypothesis other than the test hypothesis which is assumed to be true and is needed to derive the test implication
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essentialism
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species do not change through time
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rationalism
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a method or a theory "in which the criterion of the truth is not sensory but intellectual and deductive; based more on hypothesis and theories
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empiricism
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emphasizes those aspects of scientific knowledge that are closely related to evidence, especially as discovered in experiments. It is a fundamental part of the scientific method that all hypotheses and theories must be tested against observations of the natural world, rather than resting solely on a priori reasoning, intuition, or revelation.
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inheritance of acquired characteristics
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organisms change physically as they strive to meet the demands of their environment and these changes are then passed on to future generations
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homologous structures
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anatomical, developmental, behavioral, or genetic feature shared between two different organisms because they inherited from a common ancestor (same evolutionary origin)
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ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny
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the developmental history of an organism passes through stages that are shared with the embryonic stages of evolutionary ancestors
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vestigial
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occurring in a rudimentary condition as a result of evolutionary reduction from a more elaborated functional character state in ancestor
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malthus
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essay on principle of populations: nature acts to limit population numbers (more offspring are produced than survive)
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natural selection
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those individuals that possess superior physical, behavioral or other attributes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those that are not so well-endowed
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homology
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feature shared by two lineages because of descent from an ancestor that had the feature
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transformation
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a heritable change in a homology along a lineage from a prior state to a posterior state
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divergence
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the splitting of one lineage into two lineages
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reticulation
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the blending of two lineages into one
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monophyly
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all and only descendants of a common ancestor
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Henning Principle
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in a system evolving via descent with modification and splitting of lineages, characters that changed state along a particular lineage can serve to indicate the prior existence of that lineage, even after further splitting occurs
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paraphyletic group
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group excludes some of the descendents of a common ancestor
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ancestral trait
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trait shared by a group of organisms by descent from a common ancestor
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derived trait
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a new trait found among members of a lineage that was not present in ancestors of that lineage
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homologous
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feature that is shared between two organisms by common descent
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analogous
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similar structure and function but different evolutionary origins
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orthologous
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homologous genes that are passed in a straight line from one generation to the next but end up in different gene pools due to speciation (ex. B-hemoglobin)
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paralogous
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found in more than one copy in the genome
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convergent evolution
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the independent evolution of similar features by two or more groups
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taxon
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any named taxonomic group such as the family Felidae or the genus Homo or the species Homo sapiens
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systematics
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study of biological diversity and its evolution
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phylogeny
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"Tree of life": branching relationships among species, showing which species shares its most recent common ancestor with other species
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clade
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a group of organisms that have all evolved from a common ancestor, includes the common ancestor and all of its descendents (synonym for monophyletic group)
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common ancestor
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assuming a single origin of life, then any two taxa have a most recent common ancestor
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node
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a branch point, represents a common ancestor at the time of divergence into two or more lineages
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cladogram
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a graphical depiction of phylogenetic relationships
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phenogram
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a graphical depiction of overall similarity-- often does not give phylogenetic relationships
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sister groups
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two groups with the same immediate common ancestor
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plesiomorphic
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ancestral character sometimes inappropriately termed primitive
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symplesiomorphic
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an ancestral character shared by several species
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apomorphic
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a new derived trait, sometimes inappropriately termed advanced
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synapomorphies
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shared apomorphies (derived) characteristics; to draw a phylogenetic tree, we look for synapomorphies
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autapomorphy
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a derived character state possessed by only one of the taxa under consideration. Demonstrates the uniqueness of taxa, but don't help identify cldes
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outgroup
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among the state of a character found in the members of a monophyletic group, the ancestral character state is the one that is most widely distributed among taxa outside this group. These latter taxa are called outgroups and their features provide valuable information for inferring relationships among the members of the monophyletic group under study
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stem group
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ancestral clade from which a crown group with new derived characteristics has evolved
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crown group
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the group with new derived characteristics coming from a stem group
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terminal taxon
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the basic groups whose relationships are being studied in a particular cladistic analysis
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aptation
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passes tests 1-3
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exaptation
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fails test 4; structure that evolves and functions in one environmental context but performs an additional function when placed in some new environment
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homplasy
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possession by 2 or more species of a similar or identical character state that has not been derived by both species from their common ancestory, embraces convergence and evolutionary reversal
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allometric grwoth
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difference in relative rates of growth of various parts of the body
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heterochrony
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evolutionary changes in the timing or rate of development; can result in the apperance of juvenile characteristics of one species in the adults of another species
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hypermorphosis
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extending development past the ancestral stage
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hox genes
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regulatory genes that affect morphological evolution; control where specific structures are formed
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microevolution
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changes in the gene pool of a population over successive generations
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