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334 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Onycophora
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Phylum. Velvet worms.
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Tardigrada
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Phylum. "water bears."
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Ectoprocta
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Phylum. Strange colonial organisms.
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Echinodermata
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Phylum. Includes classes Astroidea (sea stars), Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers), Crinoidea (sea lilies), Echinoidea (sea urchins), and Ophiuroidea (brittle stars).
Pentaradial symmetry. Hydrovascular ambulation. Pedicellariae. Deuterostomes. |
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Astroidea
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Class. Sea stars. Benthic (live on substrate), predatory. Possess pedicellariae, papulae, hydrovascular ambulation, limited autonomy/regeneration.
Hemal circulatory system. Madreporite and anus are on dorsal side, mouth is on ventral side. Gonads, digestive system largely within arms. |
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Pedicellariae
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Jawlike pincers found on the dermis of echinoderms. Used for keeping papulae clear of debris. Also for defense
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Papulae
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Pores in the dorsal side of echinodermata. Used for gas exchange/excretion.
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Madreporite
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Pore through which water passes. Echinoderms can regulate the pressure within the hydrovascular system in this way.
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Ampulla
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Small valves to which the lateral canals feed water. Each ampulla corresponds to a particular tube foot within an echinoderm.
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Ring canal, stone canal, lateral canal.
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Three intermediate steps in the hydrovascular system of echinoderms. They are preceded by the Madreporite, and they feed into the ampulla.
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Hemal system.
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Type of circulatory system in which the purpose is not gas exchange but rather nutrient distriution. Possessed by echinoderms.
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Ophiuroidea
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Class. Brittle stars. These are characterized by their relatively small central disk and extreme autonomy. Nocturnal, secretive. No pedicellariae, papulae. Madreporite is on oral side. Organs only in the central disk.
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Autonomy
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The ability to sever limbs so as to escape. Associated with regeneration.
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Regeneration
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The ability to regrow severed limbs. Associated with Autonomy
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Ossicle
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Part of the skeletal system of echinoderms. The bone encircles the nerves within the arm. Nerve cords on the outside of the skeleton.
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Aristotle's Lantern
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Jaw structure found in sea urchins (echinoidea) whereby 5 teeth come together to one point. Very good for scraping things off rocks.
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Echinoidea
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Class. Regulars are sea urchins. Irregulars are sand dollars and heart urchins. Very tough shell, spines. Possess Aristotle's Lantern. Regulars are browsers, irregulars are filter feeders.
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Holothroidea
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Class. Sea cucumbers. Detritus feeders. Respiratory tree, which extends throughout animal. Can detach oral tentacles for defense.
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Cloaca
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Feature of many animals which is a sort of sack at or near the end of various systems such as digestive, respiratory, or reproductive, whereby multiple materials are simultaneously deposited.
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Crinoidea
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Class. Sea lillies. Distinguished by their long stem. They are filter feeders.
No Madreporite or Pedicellarae. |
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Ambrulacral grooves
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Within the arms of echinoderms, ampulla are attached to these grooves, and tube feet are attached to the ampulla. Spines are also attached on either side of this feature.
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Chordata (5 features)
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Phylum. Characterized by 5 features shared by many many animals: notochord, dorsal tubular nerve cord, pharyngeal slits and pouches, endostyle/thyroid, postanal tail. 3 Subphyla: Tunicata, Cephalochordata, Vertebrata.
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Tunicata
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Subphyla. Marine. ~2000 species. 3 classes: Larvacea, Thaliacea, Ascidiacea.
Water enters through incurrent syphon and then passes through meshlike pharyngeal slits. Endostyle produces mucus that traps food. Notochord, nerve cord and tail are displayed during development but then degenerate. |
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Cephalochordata
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Subphyla. 29 species.
traps particles in mucus, moved into intestine via cilia. Closed circulatory system. Endostyle produces mucus. Pharyngeal slits provide mesh which filters water. Looks like a headless little fish called Amphioxus. |
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Vertebrata
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Subphylum. all vertebrate animals.
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Notochord
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A flexible rod-like structure, like a spine but lacking in vertebrae. Serves as an anchor for muscles. Replaced in gnasthomata by carilaginous or bony vertebrae.
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Dorsal, tubular nerve cord
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Above the notochord and digestive system, on the dorsal side of the animal. Tubular because it is in an infolding of ECTOdermal cells.
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Pharyngeal pouches or slits
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Series of slits which are used for respiration, or filter feeding in protochordates. Developed from endo- and ectodermal grooves
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Endostyle or thyroid gland
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Secretes mucus. Also secretes proteins. In some chordates this is replaced by the thyroid gland.
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Postanal tail
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Structure behind the anus, assists in locomotion.
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Hemichordata
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Phylum. Acorn worms.
Once a sub-phylum of chordates. Possess gill slits, rudimentary notochord, dorsal nerve cord. Related to echinoderms and chordates |
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Three classes of tunicates.
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Larvacea, Thaliacea, Ascidiacea
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Vertebrata
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Subphylum. All chordates which possess vertebrae, including Classes Myxini, Cephalospidomorphi, Chondrichthyes, Osteichthyes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia.
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Agnatha
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Chordate grouping. Meaning without a jaw. Includes Classes Myxini and Cephalaspidomorphi.
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Thyroid Gland
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A feature which produces hormones and replaces the endostyle in some chordates.
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Pisces
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Chordate grouping. what we generally think of as fish. Includes Classes Osteichthyes and Chondrichthyes.
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Gnathstomata
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Subphylum. Means possessing a jaw. Includes classes Chondrichthyes, Osteichthyes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, and Mammalia.
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Anamniota
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Chordate grouping. Characterized by the LACK of an amniotic membrane. Includes classes myxini, cephalaspidomorphi, chondrichthyes, and osteichthyes.
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Myxini
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Class. Hagfishes. 65 described species. Uses tongue with keratinized teeth to eat mostly dead flesh. Excellent sense of smell and touch. Barbles (minitentacles?) on oral end.
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Cephalaspidomorphi
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Class. Lampreys. Marine or freshwater. 41 described species. Parasitic. May produce anticoagulant to feed on blood from host. Only live a few months as adults.
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Chondrichthyes
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Class. Cartilaginous fishes, includes sharks, rays, and chimaeras. Subclasses holocephali and elasmobrancii.
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Holocephali
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Subclass. Chimaeras. 35 species described.
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Elasmobranchii
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Subclass of class Chondrichthyes. Sharks and rays. ~815 species described. Shark attacks are very rare. But they get a lot of attention... Leathery skin. Placoid scales. 5-7 pairs of gill slits.
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Rays
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Class chondricthyes . Subclass Elasmobrancii.
They lie on the substrate, breathe via spiricles which let the gills, on the bottom, get water from above the creature. Internal fertilization. Oviparous, females lay eggs after fertilization. Ovoviviparous species, females retain eggs and offspring are nurtured from egg contents. Viviparous species, females retain eggs and nourish young. The clasper is used for sperm transfer. |
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Shark
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Phylum chordata, Class chondrichthyes, Subclass elasmobranchii. Predatory, dioecious... internal fertilization. Not as dangerous as they're made out to be.
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Types of fins on sharks
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starting at nose and going dorsaly-around. First dorsal fin, second dorsal fin, caudal fin, pelvic fin, pectoral fin.
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Lateral line
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Structure found on sharks and many other fish which allows them to detect changes in water pressure above and below them. contain neuromast cells in their pores and when the water is pushed into the pore it alerts the animal.
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Clasper
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feature of sharks used to transfer semen.
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Neuromast cells
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Cells beneath the lateral line which actually detect water pressure.
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Osteichthyes
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Superclass. Bony fishes. Not a monophyletic group.
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Differences between Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes
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Chondrichthyes
Cartilaginous Gill slits Oil reserves Osteichthyes Bony skeleton Operculum Swim bladder |
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Acinopterygii
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Class. Ray-finned fishes.
includes subclasses Chondrostei, Holostei, and Teleostei. Defined by their fins. Have a lateral line, dorsal, caudal, anal, and pelvic fin. Also a swim bladder. |
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Ray finned fishes
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Superclass: Osteichthyes. Class: Actinopterygii. Fish whose fins are fanned out, with lots of skeletal support branches.
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Sarcopterygii
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Class. Lobe-finned fishes. 10 species. Lungfishes and coelacanths.
The lungfishes can gulp air and survive out of water! Coelocanths were believed to be extinct for a long time. |
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Swim bladder
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A sack in the animal. It can be filled with gas using the Ovale in order to increase buoyancy, and regulate pressure (check on this one)
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Teleostei
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Subclass. In the class Actinopterygii. These account for 96% of all living fish species known to us, including over ~27000 species.
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Fast swimmers versus slow swimmers
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Eels are slow swimmers because they undulate over the entire body.
Tuna are fast swimmers. 2 signs of speedy swimming: Undulation is primarily in the tail region, the body is stiff. There is a sickle-shape to their tail fin. |
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Chondrostei
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Subclass of Actinopterygii. 26 species. They are commonly known as sturgeons. Their spawn is used for as caviar (Roe), and since they take so long to develop, they are now threatened
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Holostei
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A subclass of Actinopterygii. Do we know anything about this one?
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Ovale
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A gas gland which can take up gas, or put it into the circulatory system, this in combination with the swim bladder, allows the fish to manipulate the amount of gas in its system. (check on this one)
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Protostomia
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Mouth develops first from the blastopore. Includes Lophotrochozoa and Ecdysozoa.
Lophotrochozoans= Molluscs and Annelids. Ecdysozoa= Arthropoda. |
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Deuterostomia
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Anus develops first from the blastopore.
Includes Echinodermata, Hemichordata and Chordata. |
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Lophotrochozoa
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Species which share a lophopohre or trochophore larva.
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Amphibians
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Class. Chordates, Vertebrates, Craniata, Gnathostomata, tetrapoda, Anamniota. Includes Orders Anura, Gymnophiona, Urodela. 5400 species. Tied to water.
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Anamniota
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Subphyla. characterized by the LACK of an amniotic membrane within the developing egg. Includes Myxini, Cephalaspidomorphi, Chondrichthyes, Osteichthyes, and Amphibia.
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Amphibian adaptations to land.
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Lungs, not gills.
Strong limbs/skeletons. Greater thermoregulation. More places to hide, varied environs. |
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Tetrapoda
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Subphyla. Characterized by 4 limbs and a head. Includes classes amphibia, reptilia, aves, and mammalia. Said to originate from Sarcopterygii, especially lungfishes.
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Gymnophiona
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Order of class amphibia. Comprised of Caecilians. 160 species. These look like snakes, but are not. Burrowing, blind, moist skin. Moist skin's a big difference from snakes. Reproduction: internal fertilization, oviparous or viviparous. Just because they don't have legs doesn't mean they're not tetrapods.
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Urodela
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Order of Class amphibia. Salamanders. 500 species.
Limbs at right angles, moist skin. Moist skin, no scales seperates it from lizards. Reproduction: internal fertilization, oviparous. Their development includes a metamorphosis, sometimes the larval form is aquatic. |
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Anura
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Order of Class amphibia. Toads and frogs. ~4900 species.
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Caecilians
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Of the order Gymanophiona. Like snakes but moist skinned.
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Paedomorphosis
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Retention in the adult of features that (in the ancestor) were present only in the juveniles forms.
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The difference between toads and frogs.
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Toads have a rough skin with poison glands while frogs have smooth skin.
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Bulfonidae
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Suborder of Anura. True toads.
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Hylidae
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Suborder of Anura. Tree frogs.
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Ranidae
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Suborder of Anura. Bullfrogs.
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Amplexus
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When many amphibians are ready to mate the male latches onto the females back, and they enter this state. The female begins to deposit eggs in the water, and at the same time the male releases the sperm, so the eggs are fertilized outside of the body.
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Parts of the egg.
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Amnion (water seal), allantois (waste products), chorion (gas exchange, embryo, shell, yolk sac (food).
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Leathery shell
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This is a feature of the eggs of class reptilia. It protects the eggs from external damage.
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Embryo
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This is the developing offspring, for which the egg-environment exists.
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Amniotic membrane
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the "pond within the egg," this is a watertight sea around the embryo within the egg.
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Yolk sac
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This exists outside the amniotic membrane. It contains food for the developing embryo.
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Chorion
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Outside the amniotic membrane. allows for gas exchange.
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Allantois
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Part of the egg responsible for storing waste products. Outside of the amniotic membrane.
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Anapsids
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Subclass of reptilia. These only have one opening in the skull, behind the eye. Primarily, this describes turtles (testudines)
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Diapsids
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Subclass of reptilia. These have multiple openings in the skull, lateral and dorsal. This allows for better jaw motion, stronger jaws. Includes lizards, worm lizards, and snakes (order: squamata)
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What's the trouble with "Class Reptilia?"
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It is not a monophyletic group because it fails to acknowledge birds, which are in the class aves.
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Synapsid
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Type of skull... I know humans are this, but what is it?
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Testudines
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Order of Class Reptillia. Turtles. Anapsid. Dorsal carapace, ventral plastron. No teeth, keratinized plates for gripping.
Reproduction: Internal fertilization, oviparous. |
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Sphenodonta
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Order. Within the subclass Diapsida. the tuataras of new zealand.
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Squamata
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Order. Includes lizards, snakes, and worm lizards. Within the subclass Diapsida.
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Rough, scaly skin
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One of the features of reptiles. Reptilian scales come from the EPIDERMIS, whereas fish scales come from the dermis.
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Reptilia
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"Class" (should include birds) 1. Characterized by dry skin, 2. crushing jaws, 3. amniotic eggs, 4. internal fertilization, 5. water conservation via uric acid,
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Glottis
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Snakes breathe through a hole in the bottom of their mouth. This is useful when they're stuffing a giant bit of prey into their unhinged maw.
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Sphendonta
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Order of Reptillia. Tuataras... only two or three species in new zealand. They have a photoreceptive third eye which is associated with thermoregulation and hormone reproduction.
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Crocodilia
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Order. Alligators and crocodiles. Subclass Diapsida. They exhibit homodont dentition.
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How can you tell between a crocodile and an alligator?
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Crocodiles have a narrow snout, and you can see both the top and bottom teeth when their jaw is closed. Alligators have a wider snout, and you can only see the top teeth.
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Aves
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Class. It's birds! Primarily distinguished by feathers, and usually, flight. Belongs to chordate groupings aminota, gnasthstomata, certebrata, craniata, chordata, tetrapoda.
Diapsid. 10000 species described. |
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How did flight develop?
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Reptilian forbears either...
1) ran away from predators, eventually happened to take off, so that was useful. 2) tree climbing reptiles jumped from tree to tree, and gliding became useful. |
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keel
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a large bone in the bird's sternum, where flight muscles attach.
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Parts of Feathers
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Made of Keratin, the feather begins at the Quill, which turns into the Shaft. Protruding from the shaft are Barbs, and from these barbs protrude Barbules in one direction, and Hooklets in the other. This forms a strong, woven plane which is called a Valve
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Quill
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The base of a feather, the thick part which attaches to the bird's skin.
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Shaft
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The central part of the feather, the quill becomes this.
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Barb
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Strands protruding from the shaft of a feather.
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Barbule
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strands which protrude, in one direction (say: north), from the barb of a feather. Hooklets protrude in the opposite direction (south).
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Hooklet
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These are tiny hooks which extend from a barb to curl around the barbules from many other barbs. this allows the feather to form a strong vane.
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Vane
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The smooth, strong surface formed by interhooked hooklets and barbules. This is important to provide the wing stability necessary for the lift birds need to fly.
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Molting
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Birds look ruffled. This can occur seasonally, or once, in the transition from juvenille to adult. It is a risky period, because the bird will have difficulty flying.
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Perching
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Said of birds, they have a system in their feet such that they do not have to actively grip what they are standing on.
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Odd flight muscle attachment
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A massive muscle pulls the wing down, but it's actually a small muscle that pulls the wing back up, and it does so on the same side (dorsal?) as the down-muscle. it does this by actually wrapping around the wing bone.
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The respiratory system of birds.
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Birds have two air sacs where they can hold air. The first inhalation is directed first to the posterior air sac, then the lungs, then the anterior air sac, and finally it is exhaled. Birds effectively have two lungfuls of air at any given time.
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Specialization in bird features.
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Beaks are based greatly on the type of food the bird generally feeds on. Wings are based on the type of flying the bird is required to do. You can't be a great glider and at the same time be a fast take-off.
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Bird reproduction
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The male does not have a penis. Rather, the cloaca come into contact, and the egg is fertilized internally.
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Altricial
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A type of development in which the offspring is helpless, with closed eyes and no feathers/fur
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Precocial
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A type of development in which the offspring already has fur/eyes, and are not entirely defenseless.
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Mammalia
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Class. Distinguished by hair/fur.
Belonging to the chordate groupings Vertebrata, craniata, gnasthomata, amniota, chordata. The hair is made out of keratin, not chitin, btw. Mammals are endothermic. Mammary glands are a common feature of mammals. They are synapsid. Includes orders: Insectovore (shrews, moles, hedgehogs), Carnivores (cats, dogs, wolves, sea lions, walruses), Primates (monkeys, humans, lemurs), Chiroptera (bats), Rodentia (rodents), Lagomorpha (rabbits), Cetaceans (toothed whales, dolphins), Artiodactyla (sheep, goats, cattle), Perissodactyla (rhinos, horses), Sirenia (manatees, dugongs), Proboscidea (elephants). |
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Prototherian Lineage/ Monotremes
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Egg-laying mammals. Eggs are laid, undeveloped young are born and feed from milk in the mothers fur. (no nipples).
Exemplified by platypus, echidna. |
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Metatherian lineage
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Marsupials. Embryos are gestated for some time which is then birthed, and re-enters the mother in a pouch, where it develops further while feeding on milk.
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Eutherian lineage
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Mammals, like humans, with placenta. These give birth to live young.
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Kangaroo reproductive systems
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Kangaroo can actually have one young in the pouch while another is developing in the uterus, and when the first is still suckling, and another is in the pouch, a third can be in the uterus. Stranger still, the kangaroo can halt the development of the developing embryos so that they are "stored up" in case their current offspring dies.
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Biological fitness
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Number of offspring produced over lifetime.
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How do behavioral responses affect biological fitness?
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Avoiding predators, choosing what to eat, choosing where to live, finding suitable mates.
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Different stages of predator prey interaction
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Encounter. coming across prey.
Detection. distinguishing prey from objects. Indentification. distinguishing prey as edible. Attack. Subjugation. preventing escape. Consumption. consuming caught prey. |
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Crypsis
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a type of camouflage in which the prey blends in with a random sample of the environment. Affects the detection stage of predator prey interaction.
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Resemblence of an inedible object.
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This is a type of camouflage which works at the identification level of predator prey interaction.
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Mimicry
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A type of camouflage in which the animal imitates another creature, usually a toxic one. Batesian Mimicry occurs when a non-toxic species mimics a toxic one. Mullerian Mimicry occurs when a toxic species mimics another toxic species.
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Batesian mimicry
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A non-toxic species imitates a toxic one. This is detrimental to the toxic species, because the predator might eat things that look like the toxic species and not get sick!
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Mullerian mimicry
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This is a type of mimicry in which a toxic species looks like another toxic species. This benefits both of the species.
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Homodont dentition
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All the teeth are the same. exhibited by Order crocodilia. Good for catching fish.
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Heterodont dentition
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teeth are different for different food types. Mammals and other omnivores possess this.
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Hemiptera
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Class of arthropods, subphyla hexapoda. True bugs. Look for the triangle mark.
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Homoptera
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Order of insecta. Cicada, aphids.
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Insecta.
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Class of Hexapods, Arthropods. Includes Coeloptera, Diptura, Orthoptera, Hymenoptera, Leipidoptera, Hemiptera, Homoptera, Odonata,
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Odonata
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Order of Insecta. Dragonflies
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Diptera
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Order of Insecta. Flies
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Orthoptera
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Order of Insecta. Grasshoppers
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Hymenoptera
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Class of arthropoda. Subphyla Hexapoda. Social insects like bees, ants, wasps.
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Lepidoptera
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Order of Insecta. Butterflies and moths.
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Coleoptera
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Order of Insecta. Beetles.
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Hexapoda
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Subphylum. six legged. Includes class insecta.
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Arthropoda
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Phylum. distinguished by segmented appendages, antennae, tracheal system.
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Chelicerata
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Subphylum of Arthropoda. distinguished by chelicerae, which are...
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Merostomata
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Class. Horseshoe crabs. feature book gills, chelicerae.
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Arachnida
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Class. Includes orders Aranea, Scorpionidae, Acarina, Opiliones.
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Opiliones
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Order. Daddy-long-legs.
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Araneae
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Order. Spiders, 40000 named species.
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Scorpionida
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Order. Scorpions, 1400 named species.
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Acari
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Order. Ticks and Mites, 40000+ named species.
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Closed circulatory system
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means there's closed vessels that comprise the circulatory system. The blood consists of both intracellular and extracellular fluids. Mammals, most phyla except molluscs (minus cephalopods, who do have a closed system.) Blood always contained in vessels.
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Open circulatory system
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No closed blood vessels, so there's just the one type of fluid. Found in Molluscs and Insecta
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Smaller and smaller blood tubes? starting with the heart.
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Heart-arteries-arterioles-capillaries-venules-veins
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Vein
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Blood flowing toward the heart is contained in these.
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Arteries
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Blood flowing away from the heart is contained in these.
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Systemic circuit
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This circuit moves blood out from the heart to the body. In mammals, it connects to the right atrium.
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Pulmonary circuit
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This circuit moves blood to the lungs/gills to be reoxygenated.
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Amphibian heart
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Amphibians possess both pulmonary and systemic circuits, but the blood in each of these circuits mix within the ventricle of this organ. This makes it somewhat inefficient. However, amphibians breathe through their skin, this inefficiency in nutrient transport is not as crippling as it might appear.
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Mammalian heart
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2 atriums, 2 ventricles.
Systemic system dumps into the right atrium, pulmonary into the left. (by the way, it's the creature's right and left). The septum divides the right ventricle from the left. |
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Circulatory system
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Used for gas exchange and nutrient distribution. Can be open or closed, and utilizes the heart, pulmonary and systemic circuits.
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Pericardium
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This is the sac which contains all of the valves, atria, and ventricles of the heart.
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Atrium
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connection between a system and a ventricle
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atrium
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small chamber within the heart
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Right atrium
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this chamber within the heart receives blood from the systemic circuit.
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left atrium
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This chamber within the heart recieves blood from the pulmonary system.
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Tricuspid
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the right atrioventricular valve
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Bicuspid
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the left atrioventricular valve
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ventricle
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larger chamber within the heart. There are two in most animals, right and left.
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Systole
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contraction within the heart. Atrial systole causes ventricular diastole (relaxation).
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Diastole
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relaxation within the heart. Atrial diastole causes ventricular systole (contraction).
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Neuron
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A nerve cell.
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Dendrites
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The "input" of the cell. Many other neurons may connect to the dendrites via there synapses.
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Synapse
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Gaps between neurons, crossed by neurotransmitters.
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Central nervous system
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Includes the brain, spinal cord.
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Forebrain
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Includes Cerebrum (higher cognition), Thalamus (sensory integration), Hypothalamus (basic drives).
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Midbrain
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Includes optic lobes (visual processing), midbrain nuclei (sensory processing)
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Hindbrain
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Includes cerebellum (motor coordination), pons (function unknown), medulla oblongata (basic body functions).
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Cerebrum
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part of the forebrain. contains higher cognition functions.
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Thalamus
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part of the forebrain. contains integration of different senses
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Hypothalamus
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part of the forebrain. contains drives like reproductive function, hunger, thirst.
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Optic lobes
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part of the midbrain. responsible for visual processing.
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Midbrain nuclei
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part of the midbrain. responsible for sensory processing
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Cerebellum
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part of the hindbrain. responsible for coordination, timing of movements.
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Pons
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part of the hindbrain. not well understood except sort of as a gateway between brain and rest of nervous system.
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Medulla oblongata
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Part of the hindbrain. responsible for regulation of basic body functions
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Meninges
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3 layers of membrane surrounding the nerves in the spinal cord. surrounded by the vertebrae.
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Grey matter
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Neurons
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White matter
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axons
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Reflex arc
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A neural system in which the sensory neuron moves into the spinal cord, and then right back out to the motor neurons, with NO brain interaction.
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Peripheral nervous system
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all sensory and motor neurons. divided into two parts, sensory and motor. Motor is divided further into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. The autonomic nervous system is divided further into the sympathetic and parasympathetic system.
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Sensory nervous system.
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Part of the peripheral nervous system... afferent division (towards brain)
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Motor nervous system
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part of the peripheral nervous system. efferent division (away from brain)
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Somatic nervous system
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Part of the motor nervous system. contained within skeletal muscle. responsible for voluntary movements.
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Autonomic nervous system
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part of the motor nervous system. contained in smooth muscle, such as cardiac muscle, glands, and other involuntary functions.
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sympathetic nervous system
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part of the autonomic nervous system. Generally, may be considered the excitatory part of the autonomic nervous system.
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Parasympathetic nervous system.
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Part of the autonomic nervous system. Generally, the relaxing part of the autonomic nervous system.
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Chemoreception
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Type of sensory information which refers to sensing molecules. For us, this is our sense of smell and taste.
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Mechanoreception
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This is a type of sensory information concerning the motion of things. For us, this is our sense of touch and hearing. For other creatures, they might detect water current, pressure, etc.
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Photoreception
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Sensing light. as in vision.
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Propioception, noriception.
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Equilbrium, pain.... just other examples of sensory reception...
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Why is HIV so hard to kill?
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Because it reproduces really fast, and changes really quickly. So, once a cure is developed, the virus can adapt...
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How does HIV attack its host?
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The varions enter the host through blood, semen, breastmilk. It then moves into the circulatory system and attacks specific immune system cells. It uses the host cell's enzymes in order to rewrite the cell's DNA with its own RNA using reverse transcriptase. the cell is then compelled to create new virons.
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Requirements for evolution by natural selection
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1) Traits are varied.
2) Variations are passed on to offspring. 3) Reproductive success is varied (this is universally true). 4) Reproductive success is altered by inhereted traits. |
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Difference between natural selection and evolution
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natural selection occurs within the lifespan of an individual. Evolution occurs between the generations.
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Evolution
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Change in allele frequencies over time
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4 evolutionary mechanisms
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1) Natural selection
2) Mutation 3) Migration 4) Genetic drift |
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Natural Selection
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When specific genetic traits are selected because they lead to the greatest biological fitness. Can be Directional, Stabilizing, or disruptive.
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Mutation
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Random changes in the genetic material. Essential that they are random, not targeted. Provide the raw material for evolution: genetic variation.
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Genetic Drift
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random changes in allele frequency (not in the alleles themselves, that's mutation. Change in the frequency. Reflective of sampling error)
Is occuring continuously, especially in small populations. Reduces genetic variation. |
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Migration
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When individuals from isolated populations move from one population to another, they have an affect on allele frequency. This tends to produce more genetic variation, because different populations will have different frequencies, or even different alleles. The immigrants must reproduce to have an impact. Also, migration can sometimes work against natural selection (snakes on islands).
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Founder effect.
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When a species migrates to a new region and establishes the population, the original founders have a large effect on the allele frequencies of that population. Multiple founder events have the effect of reducing genetic diversity.
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Directional selection.
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Natural selection in which one extreme of a given trait is favored. (eg larger beaks, or thicker shells)
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Stablizing selection
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Natural selection in which the medium phenotype is favored.
(eg medium sized palps) |
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Disruptive selection
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A type of natural selection in which BOTH extremes are favored, and the medium phenotype is reduced.
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Natural selection versus sexual selection
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Natural selection encompasses sexual selection... but more specifically, sexual selection is comes in two varieties, intrasextual selection and intersexual selection. A creature which is favorved by sexual selection will often have greater mating success, even if it's less ideally adapted to the environment.
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Intrasexual selection.
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Adaptations which make an organism better equipped to compete with other suitors are favored.
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Intersexual selection
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Features which make an organism more attractive to mates are favored.
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Species concept
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"Species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other groups."
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Speciation
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The process by which one species becomes two or more. Occurs in the absence of "gene flow" (migration). reproductive isolation is essential to speciation.
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Reproductive isolation
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Essential for speciation. No offspring. Could be at the level of courtship, or they can't fertilize, or the offspring aren't viable, or the offspring are viable but sterile, like mules.
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Allopatric model
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A physical barrier arises between populations. When the barrier is removed, they can no longer interbreed.
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Allopatric dispersal
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Type of speciation where a new population is founded and loses contact with the old one until they can no longer interbreed.
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Allopatric vicariance
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Type of speciation in which a barrier cuts into a species' range, dividing them into two populations.
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Stomatopoda
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Order, of Class Malacostraca.
distinguished by strange club-claws, and ruffled stomach |
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Decapoda
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Order, of Class Malacostraca.
Shrimp, Lobsters, Crabs. |
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Bryozoa
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Phylum. Small colonial aquatic things. They group up to form a colony.
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Brachiopoda
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Phylum. Obscure "lamp shells" They look like a booger.
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Ambulacral ridge (Starfish dissection)
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Phylum Echinodermata, Class Astroidea. 2 hard lines running down the center of the arm.
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Ampulla (Starfish dissection)
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Phylum Echinodermata, Class Astroidea. On the side of the ambulacral ridge, white-clear sacks.
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Ceca (Starfish dissection)
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Phylum Echinodermata, Class Astroidea. Yellow, bulbous gunk. Stomach was a large mass in the middle.
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Pharynx (Sea cucumber dissection)
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Phylum Echinodermata, Class Holothuroidea. Large white and red sack. Retractor muscles were whitish bars, hard.
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Respiratory tree (Sea cucumber dissection)
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Phylum Echinodermata, Class Holothuroidea. Large mess of tentacle like tubes. Was orange...
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Ampuca (Sea cucumber dissection)
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Phylum Echinodermata, Class Holothuroidea. Red dots on lining longitudinal muscles.
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Aristotle's Lantern (Urchin dissection)
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Phylum Echinodermata, Class Echinoidea. Bony structure in the center.
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Chaetognatha
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Phylum. Arrow worms. We didn't learn much about them...
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Papulae
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Feature of class astroidea. fleshy lobes that are used for respiration.
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Esophagus (Urchin dissection)
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Phylum echinodermata, class echinoidea. Long whitish tube that goes from the mouth to the top of the creature.
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Small intestine (Urchin dissection)
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Phylum echinodermata, class echinoidea. around sides, there are curves of coils. These are the darker, inner part... i think they were black while the large intestine was orange?
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Large intestine (urchin dissection)
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On the outside part of the innards, but closer to the center than the small intestine.
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Gonads (urchin dissection)
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???
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Bipinnaria
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Asteroidea larva. They look sorta like a pod.
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Echinopluteus
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Echinoidea larva. They look like a ... rhombus with many rods attached on one end... sort of a lunar lander? Hehe.
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Placoid scales
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Feature of subclass Elasmobranchii. Grows out of the dermis, unlike reptilian scale, which grow out of the epidermis.
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Actinopterygii
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Class. Ray finned fish. most fish are in this class. Includes subclasses Chondrostei(sturgeons), Holostei(), Teleostei(most fish)
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Holocephalii
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Subclass of Chondricthyes. Dogfish! Despite being cartiliginous fishes, they have an operculum.
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Insectivores
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Order of class mammalia. Shrews, moles, hedgehogs.
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Carnivores
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Order of class mammalia. Seals, sea lions, walruses, wolves, cats, dogs
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Primates
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Order of class mammalia. monkeys, lemurs, humans
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Chiroptera
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Order of class mammalia. Bats.
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Rodentia
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Order of class mammalia. Gophers, hamsters, mice, rats, beavers.
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Cetaceans
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Order of class mammalia. Toothed and baleen whales, dolphins.
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Artiodactyla
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Order of class mammalia. Deer, antelope, sheep, goats, cattle.
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Perissodactyla
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Order of class mammalia. Rhinos, horses.
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Sirenia
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Order of class mammalia. Manatees, dugongs.
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Proboscidea
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Order of class mammalia. Elephants
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Insectivores
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Order of class mammalia. Shrews, moles, hedgehogs.
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Carnivores
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Order of class mammalia. Seals, sea lions, walruses, wolves, cats, dogs
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Primates
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Order of class mammalia. monkeys, lemurs, humans
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Chiroptera
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Order of class mammalia. Bats.
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Rodentia
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Order of class mammalia. Gophers, hamsters, mice, rats, beavers.
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Lagomorpha
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Order of class mammalia. Rabbits
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Cetaceans
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Order of class mammalia. Toothed and baleen whales, dolphins.
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Artiodactyla
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Order of class mammalia. Deer, antelope, sheep, goats, cattle.
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Perissodactyla
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Order of class mammalia. Rhinos, horses.
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Sirenia
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Order of class mammalia. Manatees, dugongs.
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Bones of the body (MEGA CARD!)
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Humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalnges, femur, fibula, patella, tibia, tarsals, metatarsals, pelvic girdle, sacrum, scalpula, clavicle, Vertebrae: Sacral, lumbar, thoracic, cervical.
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Phalanges.
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Bone. Refers to the fingers or toes. attached to the metacarpals or metatarsals.
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Metatarsals
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Bone. The flat of the foot. attached to the tarsals, and the phalanges.
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Fibula
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Bone. smaller of the pair of bones in the calf. attached to the tibia, which leads from the Patella/Femur to the tarsals.
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Tibia
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Bone. Larger of the calf bones. Attached to the fibula. Leads from the Patella/Femur to the tarsals.
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Patella
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Bone. Kneecap. Between the Tibia and the Femur.
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Metacarpals
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Bone. Hand, palm. attached to the carpals and the phalanges.
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Carpals
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Bone. Wrist. Attached to the radius, and the metacarpals.
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Radius
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Bone. Larger of the pair in the forearm. Attached to the ulna, leads from the humerus to the carpal bones.
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Ulna
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Bone. Smaller of the pair in the forearm. Attached to the radius. Goes from Humerus to the carpal bones.
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Humerus
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Bone. within the upper arm. attaches to the Scapula, goes to the Radius/Ulna.
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Scapula
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Bone. Backside of the shoulder. Attaches to the clavicle, humerus, rib cage.
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Clavicle
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Bone. Collarbone. Attaches to the rib cage, spine, scapula.
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4 types of vertebrae, from skull to pelvis. (how many of each are there? Special names?)
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1)Cervical. Near the neck. The first is Atlas, the second is Axis. Then there are 5 more.
2) Thoracic. Each has ribs attached. There are 12. 3) Lumbar. Lower back. There are 5. 4) Sacral. End of the spine, within the pelvic girdle. Consists of 1 vertebra, the sacrum. A bit of bone attached to the end of the sacrum is the Coccyx... maybe a tail remnant? |
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Sternum
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Central bone on top of the chest. Holds ribcage together.
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Atlas
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Vertebra. The first of the cervical vertebra. Just after the skull.
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Axis
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Vertebra. The second of the cervical vertebra. Just after the atlas.
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Astragalus/Calcaneus
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The large, paired bones which have replaced the tarsals in frogs. Calcaneus is larger.
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Synsacrum
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Bone. In birds, the pelvic girdle.
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Furcula
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Small bone in birds that replaces the clavicle. The wishbone.
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Muscles of the body. (Mega Card!)
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Deltoid, trapezius, platysma, pectoralis, rectus abdominis, external obliques, latissimus dorsi, biceps brachii, triceps brachii, gluteus maximus, rectus femoris, semitendinosus, biceps femoris, gastrocnemius.
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Deltoid.
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Muscle. Shoulder. Connects to the trapezius, and the platysma.
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Trapezius.
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Muscle. Side-of-neck-to-shoulder. Connects to the deltoid. Runs from the back of the neck down about a third of the way down the back.
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Platysma
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Muscle. Front of the neck.
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Pectoralis
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Muscle. Top of the chest.
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Rectus abdominis
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Muscle. Over the stomach. This is the "6 pack."
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External obliques
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Muscle. On the sides of the sternum.
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Latissimius dorsi
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Muscle. Most of the the lower part of the back. the upper part is the trapezius.
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Biceps brachii
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Muscle. FRONT side of the upper arm.
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Triceps brachii
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Muscle. BACK side of the upper arm.
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Gluteus maximus
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Muscle. Butt.
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Rectus femoris
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Muscle. Larger part of the thigh, going down the middle of the leg.
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Semitendinosus
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Muscle. Back of the thigh. the inner side
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Biceps femoris
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Muscle. Outside of the thigh.
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Gastrocnemius
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Muscle. Calf. Major mass in the back of the lower leg.
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Facial Muscles and their functions. (Mega Card!)
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Occipitofrontalis: Raises eyebrows, forehead.
Platysma: opens mouth, wrinkles skin of neck. Masseter: Closes mandible, protrudes mandible. Obicularis oris: Lips |
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Occipitofrontalis
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facial muscle responsible for moving eyebrows, brow.
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Platysma (head)
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Facial muscle responsible for opening mouth, wrinkling skin of neck.
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Masseter
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Facial muscle. Opens and closes mandible.
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Orbicularis oris
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Facial muscle. Responsible for lip movements.
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Extension
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muscle movement. To straighten a joint.
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Flexion
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muscle movement. to bend a joint.
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Adduction
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bone movement. to move a bone toward the midline of the body.
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Abduction
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bone movement. to move a bone away from the midline of the body.
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Muscles of the frog. (Mega Card!)
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Deltoid, Triceps brachii, Semimembranosus, Gastrocnemius, External oblique, Triceps femoris, pectoralis major.
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Deltoid (frog)
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Muscle. small, located on the bit between the head and the upper arm. not exactly on the front or back.
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Triceps brachii (frog)
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Muscle. on the back of the upper arm.
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Semimembranosus (frog)
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muscle. On the back side of the thigh, leads to anus.
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Gastrocnemius (frog)
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muscle. backside of the lower leg.
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Biceps femoris (frog)
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Muscle. Line in the middle of the back of the leg. Sandwiched between the triceps femoris and the semimembranosus.
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External oblique (frog)
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Muscle. Side of the back of the frog. Most of the back mass.
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Pectoralis major (frog)
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Muscle. A large V going from the center of the underside of the frog up to the shoulders.
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Liver (frog dissection)
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Order Anura. Class amphibia. Large, clover-like feature on the outermost portion of the stomach of the frog.
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Heart (frog dissection)
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Order Anura. Class amphibia. The head-leaf of the liver clover. This doesn't make any sense. ^_^
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Lung (frog dissection)
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Order Anura. Class amphibia. Beneath the liver. Clear sacs, thin
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Gall bladder (frog dissection)
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Order Anura. Class amphibia. hard to find! see if can dissect again before final... I recall it being on the animal's right... beneath the heart and liver.
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Spleen (frog dissection)
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Order Anura. Class amphibia. between the stomach and the intestine. A hard chunk, somewhat circular?
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Kidney (frog dissection)
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Order Anura. Class amphibia. Beneath the liver, heart, stomach, lungs... somewhere around the oviducts.
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Complete course of blood through the circulatory system, starting fresh from the lungs. (Mega Card!)
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Pulmonary vein into the left atrium, through the bicuspoid valve, into the left ventricle, out of the heart through the aorta, to various parts of the body, deoxygenated. Back to the heart via the vena cava, into the right atrium, through the tricuspid valve, into the right ventricle, then through a pulmonary artery, which goes to the lungs for fresh oxygen.
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Pons (sheep brain dissection)
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Phylum chordata. Subphylum Vertebra. Class Mammalia. Order Artiodactyla. large smooth part on the bottom side of the brain.
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Cerebellum (sheep brain dissection)
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Phylum chordata. Subphylum Vertebra. Class Mammalia. Order Artiodactyla. The treelike part at the back.
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Hippocampus.
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Phylum chordata. Subphylum Vertebra. Class Mammalia. Order Artiodactyla. Within the indentation in the center.
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Parts of the brain (Mega card!)
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Forebrain: Cerebrum (higher cognition), Thalamus (sensory integration), Hypothalamus (drives, like for sex and food).
Midbrain: Optic lobes (visual processing), Midbrain nuclei (sensory processing). Hindbrain: Cerebellum (motion coordination), Pons (unknown function), Medulla oblongata (regulation of body functions). |
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Complete taxonomy for Phylum Arthropoda (Mega Card!)
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Subphyla: Trilobita (trilobites), Chelicerata, Crustacea, Myriapoda, Hexapoda. Classes of Chelicerata: Arachnida, Merostomata (Horseshoe crabs), Pycnogonida (sea spiders). Classes of Crustacea: Branchiopoda, Maxillopoda.
Malacostraca. Classes of Myriapoda: Chilopoda (centipedes), Diplopoda (millipedes). Orders of Hexapoda: Orthoptera (grasshopper), Odonata (dragonflies), Hemiptera (true bugs), Homoptera (cicadas), Hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps), Diptera (true flies), Lepidoptera (butterflies, moths). Orders of Arachnida: Acari (ticks), Scorpionida (scorpions), Opiliones (daddy long legs), Aranea (spiders). Orders of Malacostraca: Stomatopoda (ruffles, Isopoda (roly-pollies), Decapoda (shrimp, crabs). |
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Chordate groupings (Mega Card!)
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Subphyla: Vertebrata (vertebrate), Tunicata (tunicate), Cephalocordata (amphioxus).
Other groupings: Agnatha (no jaw), gnasthstomata (jaw), acraniata (no skull), craniata (skull), Anaminota (no amniotic membrane), aminota (amniotic membrane), Pisces (fish), tetrapoda (tetrapods). |
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Complete taxonomy of Chordates (Super Mega Card!)
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Classes Myxini (hagfishes), Cephalospidomorphi (lampreys), Chondricthyes, Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes), Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fishes), Amphibia, Reptillia, Aves, Mammalia. Subclasses of Chondrichthyes: Elasmobranchii (sharks and rays), Holocephali (Chimaeras). Orders of Chondrostei (), Holostei () & Teleostei (). Orders of Amphibia: Gymnophiona (caecilians), Urodela (salamanders), Anura (frogs, toads).
Orders of Reptillia: Testudines (turtles), Sphenodonta (tuataras), Crocodilia (crocodiles, alligators), Squamata (lizards, snakes, worm lizards). Orders of Mammalia: Insectovore (shrews, moles, hedgehogs), Carnivores (cats, dogs, wolves, sea lions, walruses), Primates (monkeys, humans, lemurs), Chiroptera (bats), Rodentia (rodents), Lagomorpha (rabbits), Cetaceans (toothed whales, dolphins), Artiodactyla (sheep, goats, cattle), Perissodactyla (rhinos, horses), Sirenia (manatees, dugongs), Proboscidea (elephants). |
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Types of feathers and how to distinguish them.
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1) primary: curved, notched. 2) secondary: curved, un-notched. 3) tail feathers: not curved.
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Fixation
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When an allele becomes the only allele in a population.
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Myriapoda
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Subphylum of Phylum arthropoda. Contains class Chilopoda and Diplopoda.
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Chilopoda
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Class of subphylum myriapoda. Centipedes
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Diplopoda
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Class of subphylum myriapoda. Millipedes
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