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74 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What are four functions of the kidneys?
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1. filter: 200 liters of blood daily 2. regulate: volume and chemical makeup of blood 3. maintain: homeostasis of salts, acids, bases in water/blood 4. produce renin & erythropoetin |
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What are the functions of the digestive system?
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Ingestion of food and nutrients, mechanical and chemical digestion, secretion and absorption, excretion, and defecation of feces
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What are the accessory organs?
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1. teeth: breaks down food 2. tongue: manipulates food 3. gall bladder: store and concentrate bile 4. salivary glands: contains hormones for saliva 5. Liver: secretion of bile 6. pancreas: secretes insulin and glucagon for digestion |
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What is the composition and function of saliva?
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Saliva is a hypotonic solution (99.4% water) and is released by parasympathetic and sympathetic reflexes. Functions include: moistening food, initiate starch fat digestion, cleanses teeth, inhibits bacteria, and bind food into bolus
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What structural modifications does the wall of the stomach and small intestine have that enhances the digestive process?
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Contains 4 tunics. Lining epithelium is simple columnar epithelium composed entirely of mucous cells. Fibers run obliquely
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Distinguish between bolus and chyme?
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Bolus is food going from the mouth to the stomach. Chyme is the semifluid paste of food particles and gastric juices formed by mixing and churning of the stomach |
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What hormones are produced by the small intestine?
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Pancreatic lipase: digest fat Trypsin: digest proteins to peptides Maltase: completes the digestion of disaccharides |
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What is the role of bile?
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Bile juice: reduces acidity of chyme, kills the germs and bacteria that are present in food, helps in emulsification of fats Pancreatice Juice: contains enzymes that complete the digestion of starch, carry out about half of protein digestion, responsible for fat digestion, and digest nucleic acids |
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What enzymes are involved in chemical digestion of proteins?
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Pepsin, trypsin, and chymotrypsin
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What enzymes are involved in chemical digestion of lipids
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Lipase (lingual, gastric, and pancreatic lipase)
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What enzymes are involved in chemical digestion of carbs?
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salivary amylase, pancreatic amylase, maltase, sucrose, lactase, dextrinase, glucomylase
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Blood flow through kidney?
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Heart --> Renal Artery --> Segmental artery --> interlobar artery --> arcurate artery --> corticoradiate artery --> afferent arteriole --> glomerulus --> efferent arteriole --> peritubular capillary (or vasa recta) --> corticoradiate vein --> arcuate vein --> interlobar vein --> renal vein --> inferior vena cava --> heart
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Flow of tubular fluid/urine through the kidney?
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Glomerulus --> Bowman’s Capsule --> Proximal Convoluted Tubule --> Descending and Ascending limbs of the Loop of Henle --> Distal Convoluted Tubule --> Collecting Duct --> Papillary Duct --> Minor Calyx --> Major Calyx --> Renal Pelvis (widest part of the Ureters) --> Urinary Bladder --> Urethra
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What are the three different tissues of the kidney?
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1. Renal Capsule: fibrous capsule 2. Adipose tissue: cushion and protect the kidney 3. Renal Fascia: dense fibrous tissue that holds kidney in place |
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What is the basic unit of the kidney?
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nephron
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What is the function of a nephron?
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-remove excess water and wastes, and other substances from blood -return substances like sodium, potassium, or phosphorous whenever body runs low |
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Describe a cortical nephron?
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-85% of nephrons - short nephron loop -peritubular capillaries communicate with PCT & DCT -blood composition is the goal |
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Describe a juxtamedullary nephron?
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-15% of nephrons - long nephron loop -uses vasa recta to communicate with loop -urine concentration (conserving water) |
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What is glomerular filtration rate?
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Is the total amount of filtrate formed per minute by the kidney's
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What is the role of aldosterone?
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Aldosterone is released by the kidney's from the glomerulosa and is used to signal the kidney's to retain or reabsorb sodium in the blood, and excrete potassium in the urine. By retaining/reabsorbing sodium, water is also retained because H20 is attracted to Na+
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What is the role of ADH?
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Anti-diuretic Homrone is a hormone that acts upon the kidney's to signal them to retain/reabsorb water into blood plasma.
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What are the four stages of filtration in the nephron?
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1. Heavy Blood Filtration: both desirables and waste products 2. Reabsorption: reclaiming desirables (H20, electrolytes, glucose, vitamins, amino acids) 3. Secretion: waste, acid-base balance, drug metabolytes (bad things back out of blood) 4. Urine concentration |
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What type of membranes are found at each of the four sites of filtration in nephron?
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1. filtration: fenestrated capillary epitheliam 2. reabsorption: basement membrane: negatively charged 3. secretion: podocyte, filtration slits |
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Where do each of the four steps of filtration happen in the nephron?
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1. glomerulus capsule 2. Proximal convoluted capsule 3. distal convoluted capsule 4. nephron loop & collecting duct |
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What are the three ways that the kidney's control and stabilize glomerular filtration rate?
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1. Renal Autoregulation 2. Nervous system 3. Hormonal |
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What are the two renal autoregulation mechanisms?
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1. Myogenic: The smooth muscle within the afferent arterioles constrict in response to stretch from increased blood flow (or blood pressure) to reduce large changes in filtration rate 2. Tubulogomerular: Tubuloglumerular feedback involves the JGA. The macula densa in the DCT detects electrolyte concentration in filtration leaving the ascending limp of nephron loop. Depending on the concentration of Na+ and other electrolytes the macula densa will then send a message to the JG and mesengial cells. The JG cells in response to the macula densa will either constrict or dilate afferent arterioles to increase or lower blood pressure. The mesengial cells will respond the same way, but instead focus on constricting or relaxing the glomerulus. |
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What are the effects of renin-angiotensin on systemic blood pressure?
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Renin-Angiotensin II increases blood pressure by: 1. signaling the hypothalamus to increase thirst and release ADH which helps to increase water and blood volume in the body which leads to increased BP 2. Vasoconstriction of the blood vessels 3. Aldosterone release: signals the kidney's to retain Na+, helping to again increase water and blood volume 4. Decrease blood pressure in peritubular capillaries so that they can readily uptake Na+ and H20 5. Decrease GFR by having mesengial cells constrict the glomerulus |
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How does the nervous system control and stabilize GFR?
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Using the sympathetic nervous system the body's blood pressure increases, so sympathetic nerves decrease GFR by constricting afferent arterioles and letting blood go to muscles instead of kidney's
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Explain formation of dilute?
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What are the functions of the male reproductive system?
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serves to produce sperm and introduce them into the female body
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explain the source and function of semen?
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semen is a milky white, somewhat sticky mixture consisting of seminal vesicle fluid, prostatic fluid, and sperm and spermatic duct secretions. Semen provides a transport medium for sperm
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31. Urine passes through the ____ A. renal pelvis to the bladder to the ureter B. renal pelvis to the ureter to bladder to urethra C. glomerulus to ureter to renal tubule D. pelvis to urethra to bladder |
B. renal pelvis to the ureter to the bladder to the urethra
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32. An increase in the permeability of the collecting duct to water is due to A. a decrease in ADH B. an increase in ADH C. an increase in aldosterone D. a decrease in blood plasma |
an increase in ADH
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33.The kidneys are stimulated to produce renin by a decrease in the blood pressure. A. when the peritubular capillaries are dilated B. when the pH of the urine decreases C. by a decrease in the blood pressure D. by an increase in the blood pressure |
a decrease in the blood pressure
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blood vessels of the renal column are called: A. lobar B. segmental C. interloba D. arcurate |
interlobar
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35. The descending limb of the nephron loop ______ A. is not permeable to water B. is freely permeable to sodium and urea C. pulls water by osmosis into the lumen of the tubule D. contains fluid that becomes more concentrated as it moves down into the medulla |
contains fluid that becomes more concentrated as it moves down into the medulla
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36. Which of the following glands are responsible for 60% of semen production? A. seminal vesicles B. bulbourethral gland C. prostate D. pituitary |
A. seminal vesicles
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Which of the following hormones controls the release of anterior pituitary gonadotropin? A. LH B. FSH C. GnRH d. testosterone |
C. GnRH
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Cells that produce testosterone in the testis are called? a. spermatocytes b. spermatogonia c. sustentacular cells d. interstitial cells |
D. interstitial cells
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What are the primary sex organs?
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the gonads: the ovary and testes
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What are the ovary and testes in charge of?
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making gametes and hormones
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what are sex cells produced by each parent?
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gametes
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what is a fertilized egg that has a combination of both parent's genes?
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zygote
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what does the female reproduction system serve to do?
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Produce eggs, receives sperm, provides for the union of the gametes, harbors the fetus, and nourishes the offspring
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What is a bundle of fibrous connective tissue containing the ductus deferens, blood and lymphatic vessels, and testicular nerve
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spermatic cord
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What temperature can sperm be produced in?
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35
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What are strips of the internal abdominal oblique muscle that enmesh the spermatic cord, and during cold temperatures contract and draw testes up
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Cremaster muscle
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What is the subcutaneous layer of smooth muscle that contracts when it's cold, wrinkling the scrotum, holding testes against warm body
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dartos muscle
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What is the extensive network of veins from the testes that surround the testicular artery and spermatic cord
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pampiniform plexus
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Combined endocrine and exocrine glands that produce sex hormones and sperm?
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testes
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What tubules convey sperm to the rete testis
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seminiferous tubules
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What cells make/produce testosterone?
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interstitial cells
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What tubules produce the sperm?
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seminiferous tubules
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What is the site for sperm maturation and storage (fertile for 40 to 60 days)
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epididymis
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What is the traveling tube from the testes to the seminal vesicle?
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ductus vas deferens
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What is the duct formed from ductus deferens and seminal vesicle and passing through prostrate to empty into urethra
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ejaculatory duct
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what are the accessory glands?
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seminal vesicle prostate gland bulbourethral glands |
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What forms 60% of semen and provides transport
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seminal vesicle
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what gland produces "pre-cum" to clean out urethra?
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bulbourethral gland
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what body tissue of the penis runs along the ventral side and opens up the urethra?
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corpus spongiosum
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what body tissue of the penis holds deep arteries and runs along the top?
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corpus cavernosa
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What is the sequence of events that produces sperm in the seminiferous tubules of the testes?
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spermatogenesis
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What is gamete formation completed by, in which the number of chromosomes is halved?
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meiosis
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what actives sperm to start swimming and contributes to 30%?
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prostate gland
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what lies along the periphery of the seminiferous tubules and divide by mitosis?
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spermatogonia
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Describe spermatogenesis:
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Spermatogonia divide into: Type A spermatogonium & Type B spermtogonium Then: Type B enlarges and becomes primary spermatocyte Which then divides into secondary spermatocytes When they then divide into four spermatids |
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what is the process where the four spermatids divide no further, but undergo a transformation in which it differentiates into spermatozoon? Changes that transform spermatids into spermatoza |
spermiogenesis
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How many parts does spermatozoon have?
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Two parts: head and tail
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Why is testosterone important?
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Spermatogenesis and male fertility are dependent upon the presence of testosterone in the tests. In the absence of testosterone or the androgen receptor, spermatogenesis does not proceed beyond the meiosis stage.
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Describe the menstrual cycle?
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Puberty is triggered by rising levels of GnRH which stimulates anterior lobe of pituitary to produce: FSH and LH FSH stimulates developing ovarian follicles and they begin to secrete estrogen, progesterone, inhibin, and small amount of androgen. Estrogens are feminizing hormones with widespread effects on the bodyEstradiol (most abundant), estriol, and estrone. |
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What are the physiological effects of estrogen and progesterone?
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Progesterone: has one crucial role in preparing the uterus for the possibility of pregnancy Estrogen: rising levels inhibit the release of FSH and LH; it also stimulates mitosis in the stratum basalis and the prolific regrowth of blood vessels regenerating the functionalis; also stimulates endometrial cells to produce progesterone receptors |
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Describe hormonal interactions during ovulation?
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1. estradiol stimulates surge of LH and small spike of FSH 2. LH induces several events: primary oocyte completes meiosis; produces secondary oocyte and first polar body |
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what is the rupture of the mature follicle and the release of its egg and attendant cells
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ovulation
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list the stages of the menstrual cycle?
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1. proliferation phase 2. secretory phase 3. premenstrual phase 4. menstrual phase |