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212 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Parasympathetic activation of the GI tract leads to:
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Increased HCL production, pancreatic secretions, and muscle contractions in the muscularis externa. “Rest and digest”
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Four layers of the GI tract from Lumen to Peritoneum are:
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mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa
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Mucosae –
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Secretory and absorptive layer. Innermost. Composed of: Muscularis mucosa, lamina propria, and simple columnar epithelial tissue.
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Muscularis mucosa –
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Controls folds in the small intestines’ epithelial tissue.
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Lamina Propria –
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Areolar connective tissue. Supports epithelial tissues. Has lots of while blood cells.
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Muscularis Externa –
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Layer composed of at least two muscle layers. Smooth muscle that runs both longitudinally and circularly
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Submucosa –
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Dense connective tissue layer containing blood vessels, lymph nodes, and nerves. Make mucus.
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Mechanical digestion produces a uniform mixture in the…
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…stomach
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The duodenum receives _________ solution from the pancreas
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bicarbonate
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Enzymes from the pancreas require a pH of ___ to function
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8
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Two types of movement that occurs in the GI tract:
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Peristalsis and segmentation
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Mastication –
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chewing
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Lower Esophageal Sphincter –
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(“cardiac sphincter”). Controls esophagus -> stomach opening
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Pyloric sphincter –
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Controls stomach -> small intestine
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Bolus –
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Balls of food for swallowing
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Chyme –
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Completely uniformly mixed food. Exits the stomach as chyme
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Amylase breaks starch into
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simple sugars
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Hydrochloric acid:
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Kills most bacteria, chops pepsinogen into pepsin
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Pernicious anemia -
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Anemia caused by a deficit in B12. The stomach produces an enzyme required for the body to be able to absorb b12
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Hematocrit –
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portion of blood that is occupied by cells
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Palate –
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Roof of the mouth.
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Palate: Hard –
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Palatine and maxillary
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Palate: Soft –
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Muscles and connective tissues at the back of the throat
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Palate: Teeth –
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2 baby teeth, then 32 adult teeth. Incisors, then canines (has the thickest enamel), premolars, molars, wisdom teeth. Served by the trigeminal (V)
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Rh Factor is a third irritating antigens. If positive, presence is called “+”. Absence is “-“. Antibodies to Rh are not typically present in plasma of “-” people. Only appears if sensitized. Classic time for sensitizing is...
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...pregnancy and delivery.
Mother starts making antibodies to baby’s RBCs. Can lead to miscarriage or “hemolytic disease of the newborn” |
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Leukocytes –
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“White Blood cells”. Fights infection and cancer. Can follow chemical trail given off by pathogens or damaged cells.
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Phagocytes –
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When a white blood cell becomes a cell eater
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Diapedesis –
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when white blood cells become like amoebas. Puts out pseudo pods and squeezes between endothelial cells to move into tissue.
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Infundibulum –
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Connects hypothalamus to pituitary gland
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hormones are transported via –
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blood stream
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Main functions of hepatocytes:
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- Produce bile
- Store glucose as glycogen - Make plasma proteins (albumin, Clotting factors) - Store fat-soluble vitamins - Converts NH3 → urea, (from nitrogens on broken down amino acids or nucleaic acids. Large supply from recycles hemoglobin. Build up ammonia can lead to delirium.) |
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Hepatic portal system –
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ensures that all substances absorbed by digestive organs first pass through the liver for
- Detoxification (poisons, toxins, or medications) - Bacterial defense (kuppfer WBC [always in the liver]) - Nutrient modification |
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Bile is stored and concentrated in the…
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…gall bladder
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Partial oxidation of fats causes…
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…ketone production. Called ketogenesis.
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Without sufficient glucose in cells the liver can only partially burn fatty acids to make ATP. These “charred” fatty acids are called…
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...ketones.
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High density Lipoprotein:
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More protein than cholesterol (going from organ to liver). Cleans up blood vessel walls by reducing the risk of heart disease. “Healthy”
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Low Density Lipoprotein:
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More cholesterol (liver -> orgran need). Associated with increased risk of heart disease. “Lousy”
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Vitamin A –
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Function: New cell growth for healthy skin, hair, vision in dim light
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Vitamin D –
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Function: Absorption of calcium (healthy bones/teeth), immune system
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Vitamin E –
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Function: Healing of tissues
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Vitamin K –
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Function: Blood clotting, protein synthesis
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Vitamin C –
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Function: Formation of collagen, healing, immune health, iron absorption
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Vitamin B –
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Function: Important for energizing and handling stress
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Antioxidants –
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Protect from cell damage. Found primarily in vitamin A,C, and E.
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-one –
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Steroid hormone
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Four primary effects of thyroxin:
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1) Increases basal metabolic rate of all body cells (ups cellular use of O2 to make ATP). 2) Increases heart rate and blood pressure. 3) Increased erythropoiesis. 4) Enhances the affect of growth hormone.
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Glycogenesis
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“Sugar-beginning”. Enzymes of hepatocytes convert individual glucose molecules into glycogen.
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Glycogenolysis
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“sugar breaking”. Enzymes break glycogen into individual glucose molecules. Used when stressed, ups blood sugar.
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Glyconeogenesis
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“glucose new forming”. Hepatic enzymes use fatty acids and amino acids to build glucose. Used when glycogen stores are depleted such as starvation or diabetes mellitus
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Hepatic portal system –
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ensures all blood draining from digestive organs first passes through liver
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Bilirubin -
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soluble yellowish pigment left over from hemoglobin breakdown when RBCs are recycled. Some goes back to the blood, filtered through kidneys and makes urine yellow. Some pass through intestines, are modified by bacteria living there. Turns bilirubin -> stercobilin
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Parathyroid glands –
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Releases parathyroid hormone (PTH) which increases blood calcium by stimulating osteclasts to breakdown bones
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Hypothalamus –
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Regulates Pituitary Gland. Makes ADH and oxytosin. Mastery gland. In the diencephalon.
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Falciform ligament –
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Separates right and left lobes. Merges into round ligament. Blood vessel left over from fetal life.
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Hepatocyte –
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live cell
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When liver fails:
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blood pressure falls (not producing solutes), delusional/ornery (build up of ammonia), erratic blood sugar (no glycogen to steady it), and skin will be yellow (build up of bilirubin)
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________ crosses the follicular cell from the blood in the first phase of thyroid hormone production
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iodide
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Main function of aldosterone:
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Salt retention for blood pressure regulation
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Target organ for ADH –
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Kidney
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Melanocyte stimulating hormone (A) –
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Targets melanin – stimulates production of melanin
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Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH )(A) –
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Targets thyroid – Prompts release of Thyroxin and increases rate of cell activity
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Oxytocin (P) –
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Targets reproductive organs – Stimulates milk letdown, labor contraction, and orgasm
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Follicle stimulating hormone (PSH) (A) –
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Targets testes and ovaries – Prompts release of testosterone, progesterone, and testosterone. Regulates ovarian and uterine cycle. Secondary sex characteristics
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Luteinizing Hormone -
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Targets testes and ovaries – Prompts release of testosterone, progesterone, and testosterone. Regulates ovarian and uterine cycle. Secondary sex characteristics
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Cortisol –
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A hormone that simulates glycogenolysis when you’re stressed. Responsible for increasing blood glucose and blood fatty acids
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Cushings syndrome –
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Too much ACTH. Symptoms include hyperglycemia (too much cortisol), buffalo hump (redistribution of fat), moon shaped face, and high blood pressure
Addison’s disease – Too little ACTH. JFK had this. Symptoms include low bp (not enough aldosterone), hypoglycemia (not enough cortisol), difficulty dealing with stress, and are tan. Band cell – immature neutrophil may be a sign of infection. The most common type of white blood cell: Neutrophil Primary protein found inside erythrocytes: hemoglobin Erythropoiten – Thyroxin, testosterone, decreased blood volume, and decreased oxygen in blood stimulates kidney to release erythropoietin which stimulates the bone marrow to produce RBCs _________ stimulates fibrinogen to became fibrin thrombin |
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Addison’s disease –
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Too little ACTH. JFK had this. Symptoms include low bp (not enough aldosterone), hypoglycemia (not enough cortisol), difficulty dealing with stress, and are tan.
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Band cell –
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immature neutrophil may be a sign of infection.
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The most common type of white blood cell:
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Neutrophil
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Primary protein found inside erythrocytes:
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hemoglobin
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Erythropoiten –
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Thyroxin, testosterone, decreased blood volume, and decreased oxygen in blood stimulates kidney to release erythropoietin which stimulates the bone marrow to produce RBCs
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_________ stimulates fibrinogen to became fibrin
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thrombin
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Eosinophils –
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Only %2 of WBC. Granules can fight worms and some fungi, allergic response. Red granules.
- Leaves about 6 |
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Four primary effects of thyroxin:
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1) Increases basal metabolic rate of all body cells (ups cellular use of O2 to make ATP). 2) Increases heart rate and blood pressure. 3) Increased erythropoiesis. 4) Enhances the affect of growth hormone.
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Pericardical cavity contains a lubricating fluid called ______ fluid
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serous
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Cardiac muscles have a _______er absolute refractory period than skeletal muscles
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long-
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The _______ ventricular muscle wall is thicker to pump with more strength
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left
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Cardiac output equation:
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CO=SVxHR
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Ectopic focus –
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An excitable group of cells that causes their own contraction. Can interrupt normal contractions especially when overstressed or tired.
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Sinoatrial node –
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Pacemaker of the heart. Damage results in a too slow heartbeat
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Atrioventricular node –
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Accepts the impulse from the sinoatrial node. Fires the action potential that makes atria and ventricles contract. Damage to the AV node is called a “heart block”. The heart beats at a steady 40-60 b/min
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SV =
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EDV – ESV
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Steps of the heart’s contraction –
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1) Sinatrial Node ->
2) Atrioventricular Node -> 3) Bundle Fibers -> 4) Bundle branches -> 5) Purkinje fibers |
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Stroke volume –
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amount of blood ejected from each ventricle in one pump. Healthy hearts have higher SV. EDV-ESV=SV
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P wave –
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Caused by depolarization or atria. Occurs immediately before atrial contraction
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QRS Wave/complex –
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Depolarization of the ventricles. Occurs immediately before ventricular contraction. Atria are also repolarizing, but that’s masked
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T Wave –
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Repolarization of ventricles.
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Blood flows through the heart is controlled entirely by ________ changes
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pressure
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AV valves close when ______ contracts
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ventricle
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Semilunar valves _____ when ventricle contracts
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open
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Ventricular filling (mid-to-late diastole)
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Opening of AV valve starts this phase –
- Blood flowing from the atria into the ventricle. Usually fills up to about ~130 mL - Atrial systole occurs during this phase. Contributing a small amount of blood to the ventricle - Valve status: AV valves: open SL valves: closed |
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Ventricular Systole
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- Isovolumetric contraction (“same volume” because both valves are closed) then ventricular ejection phase
- When pressure in ventricle overcomes pressure in the aorta, SL valve opens and blood ejection occurs - Average pressure needed = 120mm Hg - Usually about 70ml of blood ejected - Leaves about 60 ml in the ventricle (ESV) |
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Isovolumetric Relaxation Closing of semilunar valves mark the beginning of this phase. Heard as “dub”)
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- Semilunar valve close when ventricular pressure is less than aorta
- AV valve closed because ventricular pressure hasn’t dropped enough - Pressure drops rapidly until AV valve opens and we have ventricular filling again. |
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Heart rate increased by –
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norepinephrine, epinephrine, thyroxine
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Heart rate decreased by –
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Acetylecholine.
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Norepinephrine –
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increases heart rate and force of contraction. B1 adrenergic receptors. Norepinephrine effects is blocked by beta blockers
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Congestive heart failure –
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when cardiac output cannot meet the demands of the tissues. Degenerative. Prognosis is poor. Four causes/types: Coronary atherosclerosis, persistent high blood pressure, multiple myocardial infarcts, and dilated cardiomyopathy.
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The layers of blood vessels –
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Tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica externa.
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Tunica intima –
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closest layer of the blood vessel. Made of endothelial, simple squamous cells. Capillaries are made of tunica intima only
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Tunica media –
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middle layer of blood vessels. Contains smooth muscles that are important to blood pressure regulation. Arteries have thicker tunica media than veins do.
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Tunica Externa –
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outer coat of blood vessel. Made of collagen fibers. “Aventicia”
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Blood pressure =
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cardiac output x total peripheral resistance
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Angiotensin –
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Renin from kidneys eventually activates AII. AII stimulates aldo, vasoconstriction, and ADH.
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High blood pressure damaging blood vessel walls is a possible negative effect of chronic ________
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hypertension
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_______ are blood vessel that can constrict to regulate blood pressure
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capillaries
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About _________ of blood are pumped through the heart every minute
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5 liters
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Pre load –
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The amount the heart stretches just before it contracts. Stretchy-er heart raises EDV
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Slower ______ _______ allows more time for ventricular filling (affects EDV)
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heart rate
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Exercise strengthens mycocardium so ______ ______ increases. Heart rate goes down and cardiac output need is still met.
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stroke volume
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When baroreceptors are very active, parasympathetic output form the vagus is _________
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increased
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With respect to chemoreceptors, what are three stimulus for decreased parasympathetic stimulation of the heart?
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- Increased CO2
- Decreased pH - Decreased BP |
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Fluid that does not re-enter the capillary system is returned to the blood stream via the __________ __________
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lymphatic system
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Hormal controls of BP:
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Epinephrine, norepinephrine, atrial natriuretic peptide (blocks aldosterone’s effect), ADH, and angiotensin II.
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_______’s ________ is a protusion of thyroid cartilage
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Adam’s apple
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Connective tissue that separates right and left lungs:
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mediastium
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As we breath in, intrapleural pressure changes from
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-4 to -7 and intrapulmonary pressure changes from +1 to -1
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Dead space –
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the amount of air that doesn’t participate in gas exchange
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Surfactant –
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necessary to keep alveoli open, some babies may not have enough.
Something that can be treated by steroid injections |
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Surfactant (Type II) cells -
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secrete surfactant, which decreases surface tension in the alveolus to prevent collapse. Lack of surfactant can lower lung compliance.
|
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Description of inhalation and exhalation:
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When we inhale, the diagram contracts downward bringing the parital pleura and the visceral pleara down and out, creating negative pressure by increasing volume. In exhalation, the diaphragm and ribs relax up and in, decreasing volume, creating positive pressure, and pushing air out.
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Eustacian tube –
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equalizes pressure in middle ear,.
|
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Purpose of the nasal conchea (turbinates) –
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Clean, moisten, and warm air as it enters the body.
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Epiglottis –
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Elastic cartilage. Swallowing muscles cause the epiglottis to close. Very sensitive nerve endings around epiglottis cause tearing, coughing, vomiting.
|
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Each lung is divided into 8 or 9
|
bronchiopulmonary segments
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Three layers of the respiratory membrane:
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1) Areolar epithelial tissue (simple squamous), 2) Areolar connective tissue, 3) Pulmonary epithelial tissue (simple squamous)
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Two functions of the kidney:
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1) regulate volume and composition of extracellular fluid (ECF) and 2) excrete waste products from the body.
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How many lobes are in each kidney?
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8-15
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Nephron –
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one filtration unit in a kidney
|
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Three process in urine formation:
|
Glomerular filtration, tubular secretion, and tubular reabsorption
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Reabsorption –
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when desired substances pass back into the peritubular capillary and are saved from excretion
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Kidney blood supply - Aorta → renal artery → segmental arteries → interlobar arteries → arcuate arteries →
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cortical radiate arteries → afferent arterioles (microscopic) → glomerulus (capillary bed) → efferent arteriole → peritubular capillaries (cortical nephron) and vasa recta (juxtamedullary nephron) → venules and veins converge until reaching the renal vein
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From collecting ducts to papillary ducts to minor calyx(es) which drain into…
|
renal pelvis ->ureters ->bladder ->urethra
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Each kidney contains approximately _________ nephrons
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1.3 mill
|
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Renal corpuscle –
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Glomerus and bowman’s capsule
|
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Nephron:
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One functional unit of a kidney. Includes the renal corpuscle, the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), the loop of Henle, the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) and the collecting duct.
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Hypernatremia –
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dehydration: condition of high Na+ concentration (i.e. water depletion). This results in decreased plasma volume and blood pressure that can lead to hypovolemic shock (inadequate circulation) and confusion
|
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Hypokalemia –
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low K+ concentration in the ECF: will cause muscular weakness and mental confusion
|
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Hyperkalemia –
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high K+ concentration in the ECF: will cause cardiac arrhythmia and flaccid paralysis
|
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Hyponatremia –
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decrease of Na+ in the plasma
|
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Hypernatremia –
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increase in plasma levels of sodium
|
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Aldosterone leads to the secretion of K+ from the ________ __________ _________
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Distal convoluted tubule
|
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If a person’s blood is hypertonic, they are likely to be _____________
|
dehydrated
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The DCT is MOST sensitive to hormone ___________ while collecting ducts are most sensitive to ______
|
aldosterone…ADH
|
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Three nitrogenous wastes found in urine are
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urea, creatinine, and uric acid
|
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In the kidneys, glucose and amino acids…
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..are filtered out but should always be completely reabsorbed
|
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- CO2 makes your blood
|
acidic (combines with water to make acid)
|
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- Exercise, stress, diarrhea or illness causes blood to be
|
acidic
|
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- Ketones produced in large amounts by diabetes make blood
|
acidic.
|
|
- Metabolic acidosis –
|
cell producing more acid
|
|
- 3 Mechanisms to restore blood pH:
|
1) Chemical buffers (works in seconds),
2) Respiratory buffers…breath CO2 our faster (works within minutes), and 3) Kidneys…secrete H+ ions to decrease acidity (hours and days. But most powerful) |
|
- Respiratory acidosis – It’s the _____ fault!
|
lungs
|
|
- Respiratory alkalosis –
|
lungs blowing off too much CO2 (hyperventilating)
|
|
- Metabolic alkalosis –
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when cells are losing too many H+ (extreme vomiting)
|
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Placenta previa –
|
egg attached to the cervix
|
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Ectopic pregnancy –
|
egg is….where? Not where it should be!
|
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Eggs travel down the fallopian tubes for a _____ before implanting in the uterus
|
week
|
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Week 1
|
1st day of period)
|
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Week 2
|
when fertilization occurs)
|
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Week 3
|
(implantation begins)
|
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Week 5
|
Heart starts beating.
nueral tube closes, but if not, there’s spinal bifida. Folic acid help prevent this |
|
Week6
|
Heart beat visible on ultrasound
|
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Week 10
|
Embryonic period ends
-All organs formed |
|
Week 12
|
Heart beat heard on Doppler stethascope
|
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Week 13
|
About when first trimester has ended and placenta takes over progesterone production (corpus luteum not needed anymore)
Sex visible but not always accurate |
|
Week 20
|
Usually when a detailed ultrasound is done for abnormalities
|
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Week 21
|
Earliest survival of premie recorded
|
|
Week 24
|
50% chance of survival if born now
|
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Week 27
|
End of 2nd trimester
|
|
Week 28
|
80% chance of survival if born
|
|
Week 32-35
|
When lungs finish, are now making surfactant. If not ready, the mother can be given steroid injections
|
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Week 37
|
“Full term"
|
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Placenta –
|
Pancake shaped capillary of mother runs right next to baby’s capillary (w/o touching). Glucose, fatty acids, nurtrients, water, hormone diffuse to baby’s blood vessels. CO2 and waste also diffuses
|
|
Take home:
|
placenta provides exchange.
|
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Umbilical cord –
|
contains umbilical artery and vein. Very stretchy, almost jelly like. The more active the baby, the longer the umbilical cord
|
|
Amiotic sac –
|
very strong membrane
|
|
Amiotic fluid –
|
mostly bay’s urine
|
|
Labor initiated by baby’s chemical and
|
mother’s chemicals
|
|
Cervix goes from 0cm to
|
10cm
|
|
Baby usually born head first, head
|
to the floor
|
|
3 Glands that make semen:
|
Seminal vesicle, prostate, bulbourethral gland
|
|
4 Components of semen:
|
Fructose (5 days worth of food), alkalinity, stickiness, and sperm
|
|
Vas deferens –
|
tube from testis to urethra (?)
|
|
Epididymus -
|
“upon the mind” where sperm mature and learn to swim
|
|
Testis –
|
million of sperm every day through mitosis
|
|
Each sperm contains only one copy of DNA and that cell contains ____ or ____ chromosome
|
x…y
|
|
Scrotum –
|
attached to the body with muscles to help regulate temperature. Contains the testes
|
|
Sperm must mature at ___ deg below body temperature
|
3
|
|
A woman is born with aprox _____,______ immature eggs and that’s all she gets
|
400,000
|
|
Fallopian tubes –
|
carries egg to uterus
|
|
Myonatrium –
|
thick muscle layer of uterus. must be thick because it stretches as the baby grows
|
|
Endometrial lining –
|
bloody, nutrious lining
|
|
3 Ways of telling when ovulation is occurring –
|
body temperature, texture of cervical, and consistency of cervical mucus
|
|
ovulation caused by ________ hormone. Also maintains corpus leteum
|
luteinizing
|
|
egg dies if not fertilized in _____ _______
|
24 hours
|
|
Day 10-___ is when a woman is most fertile
|
14
|
|
Estrogen is the main hormone for the first ______ weeks
|
two
|
|
________ stimulating hormone stimulates egg to grow
|
Follicle
|
|
FSH signals the ovaries to release _________
|
estrogen
|
|
About ___ days after ovulation, the egg implants in the uterine lining
|
7
|
|
Ovum –
|
where the egg is
|
|
The ______ is surrounded by mourishing cells that stimulate the egg to grow by producing estrogen
|
ovum
|
|
Pregnancy changes are due to ________
|
progesterone
|
|
Secondary sex characteristics are due to __________
|
estrogen
|
|
After the ovum is released, the noursishing cells start producing ________
|
progesterone
|
|
Corpus luteum –
|
secretes progesterone and degenerates by the end of the cycle if cell is not fertilized. Produces progesterone until placement (12 weeks) if cell is fertilized
|
|
Most water absorption happens in
|
the large intestines
|
|
Chemically breaks down protein
|
trypsin
|
|
________ fibers from the _______ _______ travel down the vagus nerve and synapse on the SA node and release actylecholine
|
parasympathetic...medulla oblongatta
|
|
congestive heart failure on the right side of the heart leads to
|
systemic edema
|
|
________ pressure must always be present in the intraplueral space
|
negative
|
|
cramping and restlessness are often symptoms of
|
hyperkalemia
|
|
a patient on diuretics for heart problems has muscle weakness, what is the likely electrolyte imbalabnce?
|
hypokalemia
|