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86 Cards in this Set
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Theories of the Origin of the State |
Irrigation, Population Growth/Circumscription/ War, trade, class exploitation - likely multicausal |
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Centers of Early Civilation |
Mesopotamia (Sumeria) Egypt Harappan (Indus Valley) China Peru/Andes (Incan Empire) Mesoamerica (highlands/lowlands) |
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Definitions of Civilization (simple) |
State: autonomous political identity with central power over the community that is backed by force City: dense and permanent concentration of population; center of economic power/activity |
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Definition of State (Gordon Childe) |
Societies that have large populations/cities have - full time, specialized division of labor - social stratification - production/concentration of agricultural surplus (taxes/tributes) - political organization (the State) - monumental public works - distinctive art - long distance trade - writing systems - beginning of sciences (exact/predictive), early math and astronomy |
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Consequences of Food Production |
- sedentism (often) - accelerated population growth (social impact) - declining health of individual (less varied diet, reliance, famines) - surplus/elaboration of tech (pyro) - more material possessions - more long distance trade |
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Theories of Agricultural Origins |
- discovering seeds grow into plants - farming is easier - Childe's "Oasis Theory" areas began to dry - Braidwood & Willey broad spectrum adaptations - Cohen's "food crisis" in prehistory - Binford & Flannery marginal areas, movement from beautiful to marginal areas, need to innovate food supply |
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Eastern North America domesticated: |
Goosefoot, sumpweed |
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Subsaharan Africa domesticated: |
Sorghum, millet, oil palm |
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Southeast Asia domesticated: |
Yams, chicken |
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Andean Highlands domesticated: |
Potatoes, sweet potatoes, quinoa, llamas, alpacas |
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Chinese Neolithic domesticated: |
Rice, millet, water buffalo |
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Mesoamerica domesticated: |
Guila Naquitz, corn, squash, beans |
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Neolithic Villages in Southwest Asia |
Ali Kosh (Modern Day Iran) 7500-5500 BC
Çatalhayouk (bull imagery/figurines, near obsidian) |
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Cultivation |
Tending plants :^) |
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Domestication |
Tending animals :^) |
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Agriculture |
Creates society :^) |
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Agriculture (climactic context) |
After last glacial maximum (22k-19k BC) Climates trends warmer Sea levels rise Forests spread |
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Derived Traits of Homo sapiens |
2-1-2-3 dentition Bipedalism Larger Brains Vertical vertebral column (S curve) Head balanced atop spinal column Basin-like pelvis Long straight legs Arched prehensile feet Hands with long flexible thumbs Precision grip Concealed female estrus Tool-making Language Hunting large animals Division of labor by sex |
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Homo erectus |
~ 1.8 mya, Pleistocene Epoch thick cranium, larger brain (900-1100 cc) expensive tissue hypthesis???, modern arm/leg proportions, slender pelvis, barrel-shaped chest |
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Turkana boy |
H. Erectus 1.56 mya, early pleistocene Likely died around age 8 based on enamel rods, but had the dentition of an 11-12 year old and body of a 14 year old |
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Java Man |
Sangiran 17, Java Brain 800-900 cc Shelf-like brow ridge Prognathic |
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Peking Man |
Zhoukoudian 500kya Brain size 1000+ cc Associated with chopper-chopping tool tradition Movius Line |
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Acheulean Tool Industry |
Bifacial handaxes, cleavers, hard/soft hammer flaking |
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Dmanisi |
Pleistocene Aapuera, Burgo Mountains, Spain - Sima del Elefante
Partial mandible 1.2 mya associated with Oldowan-type lithic tools
Sometimes considered the "European H. erectus"
Toothless Dmanisi man shows they likely cared for him as a group |
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Mesopotamia |
arguably the 1st civilization Formation Period 5000-3500 BC Sumerian 3500-2000 BC |
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Mesopotamian Formation |
5000-3500 BC Beginnings of settlement heirarchy Signs of social heirarchy (class development) Irrigation systems Population growth Craft specialization/Tech sophistication Increased trade value for material |
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Mesopotamian Sumerian Civilization |
Cities: Uruk (temples), Ur (royal graves) Early dynastic period Evolution of cuneiform |
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Egypt |
Upper vs Lower cities (reversed, upper in South, lower in North) Red Land, Black Land Giza Pyramids 2589-2508 BC built in Old/Middle Periods Heiroglyphs had standardized style Invention of paper (papyrus) "Book of the Dead" detailing religious beliefs |
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Harappan / Indus River Valley |
2500-2000 BC (later than Mesopotamia or Egypt) Characterized by large brick cities Social classes (not as stark as others) Drain systems Harappan writing signets undecipherable |
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Chinese Empire Emergence |
Continuity through to modern civilization Shang 2000-1079 BC Taotie Motif Elaborate bronze works Royal burials (valuable treasures, POWs sacrificed to serve) Oracle bones Bronze inscriptions |
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Peru - Andean / Incan Empire |
Short river valleys (coastal) Inca empire spanned almost entire South American West coast Terracing hillsides, roads Machu Picchu No writing, but had cord/knot record keeping system |
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Mesoamerica (highlands/lowlands) |
Teotihuacana dominated central highlands 150 BC - AD 750 (Aztecs) Tenochtitlan Likely didn't have fully developed writing system Mayan calendar (Lowlands) |
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Oldowan Artifact Explanations |
- home base for "Man the Hunter"- Lewis Binford's "Man the Scavenger"- hydraulic jumbles- stone caches- favored places with amenities |
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Denisovans |
Denisova Cave, Altai Mountains, Siberia Ancient DNA (aDNA) in finger bone/assorted teeth/bone needle unearthed new species living contemporaneously with neanderthalensis and AMH, a sister species Crosses Wallace Line into Papau New Guinea |
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Sagittal keel |
Ridge of bone (v-shaped) running lengthwise along midline of the top of the skull (pointy skull) |
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Occipital torus |
Prominent bulge/projection of the occipital bone at the the back of the skull |
Occipital bun |
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Prognathism |
Facial features stick out/portrude/are pushed forward |
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Eocene Epoch |
Geological epoch 55-34 mya This is when the first primates appeared |
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Omomyids |
Type of prosimian with tarsier-like features Appeared in early Eocene |
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Adapid |
Type of prosimian with lemur-like features Appeared in early Eocene |
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Oligocene Epoch |
Geological epoch from 34-24 mya first definite emergence of anthropoids |
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Fayum Basin |
site Southwest of Cairo, Egypt World's best record of Oligocene primate fossils found here |
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Aegyptopithecus |
- Best known propliopithecid - From Oligocene epoch - Likely moved quadrupedally in trees - Low molars with large cusps suggest a diet of mostly fruit - Small eyes suggest diurnal activity - Endocasts suggest large area of brain dedicated to vision as opposed to smell - small brain, long muzzle |
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Miocene Epoch |
Geological epoch from 24-5.2 mya proto-ape fossils from this epoch, early monkeys |
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Proconsul |
Best known genus of proto-apes from early Miocene Much larger than any anthropoids from Oligocene epoch Lacked tail Primarily an arboreal quadruped Fruit and leaf eaters |
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Pierolapithecus |
A middle Miocene ape that has wrists and vertebrae that would have made it capable of brachiation, but also had relatively short fingers like modern monkeys A good candidate to be the ancestor of modern forest-dwelling apes |
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Sivapithecus |
Genus of ape from later Miocene (~13 mya) known for thickly enameled teeth, suggesting a diet of hard/tough/gritty items Primarily found in Western and Southern Asia, thought to be the ancestor to orangutans |
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Dryopithecus |
Genus of ape from later Miocene (~15 mya) found primarily in Europe Had thin tooth enamel and pointed molar cusps similar to modern frugivorous chimps |
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Sahelanthropus tchadensis |
A hominoid found in Chad ~ 7 mya Late Miocene Unique mix of hominin and hominoid traits Possibly the earliest known hominin?
Hominoid: skull, small brain, large brow ridge, wide face
Hominin: teeth (especially canines)
No evidence of bipedalism aside from possible location of foramen magnum |
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Orrorin tugenensis |
A supposedly bipedal primate ~5.8-6 mya Possibly the earliest known hominin? Late Miocene "Millennium Man" |
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Ardipithecus ramidus & Ardipithecus kadabba |
~ 4.5 mya, Plio-Pleistocene Perhaps the earliest known hominins?
"Ardi"
Dentition combines ape-like and australopithecine-like features Mosaic of ancestral and derived traits
Possibly bipedal, not fully |
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Australopithecus afarensis |
Lived ~4-3 mya in East Africa Plio-Pleistocene Gracile Brain size 380-450 ccs Definitely bipedal! Very sexually dimorphic, generally accepted as descendent of A. anamensis
"Lucy" 40% complete skeleton found in Hadar Region, Ethiopia
"Laetoli footprints" in Laetoli, Tanzania from ~3.5 mya of 3 individuals, proved habitual bipedality
Ancestral features: small brain, prognathic, strong nuchal crest |
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Australopithecus anamensis |
~ 4.4-3.9 mya Plio-Pleistocene Gracile Mix of ancestral and derived traits Bipedality based off of tibia morphology
Ancestral: small brain/body, prognathic, mosaic of traits
Derived: intermediate dentition (between ardipithecus and later), bipedality |
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Ardipithecus africanus |
~ 3.5-2 mya South Africa Plio-Pleistocene Gracile "Taung Child" found in rock quarry "Mrs. Ples" discovered near Sterkfontein, most complete skeleton, considered the "Lucy" of South Africa
Postcranially similar to A. afarensis
Less prognathic, rounded cranium
Large molars, strong lower jaw, nasal pillars |
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Australopithecus garhi |
~ 2.5 mya Plio-Pleistocene Possibly the first tool-makers
Ancestral: small brain, very prognathic
Derived: long legs relative to arms
Unique: sagittal crest, teeth too large for gracile
Not really gracile or robust |
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Paranthropus aethiopicus |
Also classified as "Australopithecus" ~ 2.7-2.5 mya "black skull" Plio-Pleistocene Earliest paranthropoid Robust
Ancestral: prognathic, large anterior teeth Robust: large molars, sagittal crest, dish face |
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Paranthropus boisei |
Also classified as "Astralopithecus" ~ 2.3-1.2 mya Plio-Pleistocene Hyper robust
Largest postcanine dentition of any hominin |
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Paranthropus robustus |
~2.3-1 mya Plio-Pleistocene Robust
Very similar to P. boisei, less extreme robust Sagittal crest, flaring cheeks (dish face) |
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Australopithecus sediba |
~ 2 mya, South Africa Plio-Pleistocene
Ancestral: small brain, australopithecine shoulder, long arms, curved phalanges, primitive feet
Derived: smaller teeth, narrower cheeks (zygomatics), less postorbital constriction, gracile upper limbs, narrow pelvis |
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Pliocene Epoch |
Geological epoch 5.2-1.6 mya Earliest definite hominids appeared and diversified around this time |
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Cenozoic Era: 7 Epochs |
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Oldowan Tool Industry |
~ 2.5 mya Named after Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania Earliest stone tool-making tradition Mainly flake&core tools, choppers, manuports Mainly unifacial Kanjeri Site: bones with marks from stone tools (cannibalism?) Lomekwi, Kenya near Lake Turkana
Likely used by garhi, habilis, and erectus |
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Movius Line |
Marked boundaries between the distribution of bifacial Acheulean tools vs Oldowan tools (technological difference) |
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Homo habilus |
~ 3-2 mya Pleistocene Early species of Homo Brain size 630-640 cc (1/2 of modern humans)
"Handy man" |
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Homo rudolfensis |
Early species of Homo Pleistocene Very similar to H. habilis (some make no distinction between them), just bigger Brain size 750-775 cc |
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Lower Paleolithic |
Period of Oldowan and Acheulean tool traditions |
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Homo heidelbergensis |
transitional species between H. erectus and H. sapiens 1200-1400 cc brains Pleistocene
Archaic/premodern Homo Rounded cranium, very robust
"Rhodesian Man" Mid-Pleistocene 780-128 kya Kabwe, Zambia
Shöningen spears |
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Homo neanderthalensis |
Robust close relative to humans Evolved from H. heidelbergensis Mid-Pleistocene Interbred with AMH Mainly occupied Europe |
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Pleistocene Epoch |
2.6 mya - 11.7 kya Marked by advances/retreats of massive continental glaciations Emergence of Neanderthals, advanced Acheulean technology (woodworks, marine resource exploitation, simple dwellings) into Mousterian tool industry |
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Neanderthal Traits |
Low cranium Lacked strong chin Brow ridge projected at midline Large brain Occipital Bun Wide/projecting nose Robust muscle attachments Broad barrel chest, shorter limbs (Bergmann's/Allen's rules) |
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Neandertal Behavior |
Mousterian Tools Settlements Subsisted on hunting large animals (short range), exploited marine resources Symbolic speech, likely lacked grammar Deliberate burials |
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Homo naledi |
350-250 kya Mix of Australopithecus and Homo traits Brain size 450-600 cc |
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Gesher Benet Ya'akov |
800 kya First known use of fire Stone tools with fractured pot lid from contact with fire |
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Middle Paleolithic |
Tool assemblages - Mousterian: levalkis flake/core, knife/point/scraper/biface - Mid-Stone Age (MSA) Africa |
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Upper Paleolithic |
Industries of Europe/Asia: indirect percussion flaking
Mobiliary Art (Venus figurines), use of symbolism, animal figurines
Cave art showed animal depictions, tectiforms, engravings/clay figurines "The Sorcerer"
Elaborate burials - possibly social rank? |
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Origin/Dispersal of Modern Humans & Behavior |
- typological diversity and artifact standardization, more rapid artifact change through time, ornaments/art symbolism
- organization/dwelling space - long distance transport/exchange of lithic material - broad spectrum economics - greater population density - prey selectivity in large mammal hunting - storage facilities - occupation of different environments |
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End of Last Glacial Period (End of Pleistocene) |
9600 BC end of Pleistocene, beginning of Holocene Megafaunal extinctions |
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Post-Glacial Hunter-Gatherers |
Mesolithic
Broad spectrum hunting/gathering Bow/arrow ~ 1300 BC Fishing equipment Sickles Grinding stones Storage pits Monolithics |
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Early Agriculture |
Neolithic First animal domesticated was the dog for companionship/guardianship
Domestication Squash ~ 6000 BC Corn ~ 4000 BC |
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Homo floresiensis |
100-50 kya Reminiscent of H. habilus Small body, small brains, occipital torus
Found with remains of dwarf elephant Oldowan tools Similar to H. luzonensis from Philippines
Island Dwarfism Microcephaly |
"Hobbits" |
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Fate of the Neandertals |
- possible infighting with AMH - possibly absorbed completely into AMH - possibly outcompeted by AMH - pushed out west by AMH until extinction? Iberian Peninsula "Last Refugia" in Spain/Portugal Ebro frontier: line of demarcation in Pyranese Mountains separating AMH and Neandertal settlements |
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Homo sapiens OUT OF AFRICA |
Entered New World ~30 kya, likely through coastal route |
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Behavior During Acheulean Period |
Big Game Eating Fire Campsites Religions/Rituals |
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Mousterian Tool Industry |
Mainly associated with Neandertals and some AMH Tool assemblages - levalkis flakes/core, knife/point/scraper/biface - Mid-Stone Age (MSA) Africa |
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Behavioral Modernity |
Cooked foods Burial of Dead Language Figurative Art |
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Commensalism |
A relationship where one party benefits and the second party derives no benefit or harm |
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