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is predation (+/-) a direct interaction?
yes
and direct interactions can give rise to indirect interactions
- predation affects communities directly and indirectly
Indeterminacy in food webs
- what dies it mean?
- 3 reasons
why we often cannot predict the effects of changes in the abundance of one species on other members of the food web
complexity- there are many many nodes and links
time lags - effects don't show up until the interactions flow through many intermediate species
unpredictable behavior- trait-mediated interactions, ecology of fear, ecosystem engineering
Trophic Cascades
concept: changes in the abundances of organisms at one trophic level can influence energy flow at multiple trophic levels
**invokes indirect effects beyond one trophic level
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